to the more or less favourableness of the climatic condition of the new stations of the introduced plants. After fully discussing these results, the author puts forward his views in the following propositions:

During two periods of prolonged and intimate intercourse between the northern coast of Spain and the whole of Ireland, the conditions for bringing the seeds of various plants into the latter country from the former probably existed; and during the more recent of these periods, the existence of such trading and fishing intercourse between Spain and the Asturian districts of Ireland is so well established, and was of such a kind as to render the introduction of accidental seeds almost certain. Such seeds as required a warmer climate than that of Ireland for their germination necessarily failed, while those which were suited to the physical conditions into which they were thrown became naturalized. The winter isothermals, and the corresponding distribution of minimum temperature, confined the range of these plants to the two narrow littoral districts where they are found. The cold and wet summers which often exist in Ireland would speedily destroy such annuals as happened to be introduced from the warmer summer climate of the North of Spain; but a few of the perennials might still continue to exist, owing to the favourable conditions of winter temperature in the West of Ireland.

The author briefly discussed the grounds which we possess for believing in a former intercourse between Spain and Ireland at a very remote epoch; and he examines, with great minuteness and detail, the evidence of such intercourse during a more modern period. It appears that from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries inclusive, the west and south-west of Ireland were in close communication with the ports of Biscay and Asturias. Local histories and traditions, popular poetry, and unpublished documents were referred to in support of this conclusion; and it appears that many of the stations of the Asturian flora, where plants are actually found, were also trading or fishing stations of Asturian or Biscayan mariners. In the two instances where names in the Irish language had been ascertained for the Asturian plants, these names, in the opinion of Celtic scholars, clearly indicate the introduction of the plants from foreign countries. It is also remarkable that one of the plants of the Asturian flora has been observed in other parts of Europenamely, Belgium and the islands off the coast of Friesland, districts where the Spaniards had considerable intercourse before the Netherlands had finally achieved their independence. The winter climate of the Netherlands was probably not sufficiently favourable to the development of the other plants belonging to the Asturian flora, and these are therefore confined to those parts of Ireland where all the physical and social causes favouring their growth have long existed in a sufficiently high degree of intensity.

On the Wellingtonia gigantea, with remarks on its Form and Rate of Growth, as compared with the Cedrus Libani. By JOHN HOGG, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.

The author commenced his paper with a brief historical notice of the discovery of this magnificent North-west American tree by Mr. Whitehead in June 1850, in the Calaveras Grove in California.

This grove is situated in a sloping valley on the mountain-ridge between the South Antonio branch of the Calaveras, and the north fork of the Stanislaus Rivers, in lat. 38° N., and long. 120° 10′ W., at an elevation of 4370 feet above the Pacific. Having traced the subsequent and fuller accounts of the finding of more of these immense evergreen conifers, by Messrs. Dowd and Lewis, Mr. Hogg enumerated some of the largest trees, and gave their dimensions, which are to be seen in the Calaveras Grove, to which he assigned the title of the "Original Grove." One of these, called the "Father of the Forest," measured 110 feet in circumference at the ground, and about 435 feet in height. It was shown that other trees of great size were also found in Crane Flat in Calaveras county, on one of the tributaries of the Big Creek, on an upper branch of the Frezno River, and in the Maripora Grove, between the Big Creek and the Marced. Also it appeared that in the year 1857 Mr. Clark came upon two smaller groves of the same splendid tree. And more recently an eighth and larger grove was noticed about twelve miles east of the Frezno Grove,

The author mentioned the names of some of the most remarkable of these "Mammoth Trees," with their dimensions, and stated that, instead of there being only two groves, as was at first supposed, there existed eight or nine in all; the whole of these localities are considered to possess from 1250 to 1300 trees.

He then adverted to the generic differences of the Wellingtonia-a name inappropriately given by the late Dr. Lindley, instead of the more proper one "Washingtonia.'

Dr. Lindley, thinking that this conifer did not grow "above two inches in diameter in twenty years," being equivalent to 24 lines in twenty years, concluded that its age was 3000 years. In the year 1857 Mr. Hogg made another estimate of its age after having examined some of the breadths of the annual zones in a section of a part of the stem itself; and taking three lines, or a quarter of an inch in diameter, as its mean annual growth, especially as it is a tree of quick growth, this would make the tree to be 1344 years of age. So Dr. Torrey subsequently came to a very similar conclusion, from his own more accurate computation, that the tree had existed for 1200 years only, instead of 3000 years.

The author then remarked that that method of computation is not strictly to be depended upon; and that it is a question whether or not certain trees do undergo two growths in every year, or only in certain favourable seasons. Several botanists consider an annual double growth to be probable; and especially, with regard to the increase of the Cedrus Libani, M. Loiseleur Deslongchamps concluded that such was the case; and that each year presented two layers; the one narrow and hard, and the second much broader and looser.

Dr. Hooker visited in September 1860 the ancient Cedar Grove in Mount Lebanon, at the elevation of about 6000 feet above the Mediterranean; and he calculated from the concentric rings of a branch of an old tree, 8 inches in diameter (without its bark), which had "no less than 140 rings," the youngest trees in that valley of the Lebanon (Kedisha) would average 100, the oldest 2500 years in age. Both of these estimates, however, Dr. Hooker considered to be "wide from the mark."

Mr. Hogg compared the annual increase in height of a healthy young Wellingtonia, eight years old, with a Cedar of Lebanon, ten years of age, which was, according to Loudon, planted in a very favourable situation near London.

The Wellingtonia, growing in the south extremity of the county of Durham, was found to have increased in height in two years (when aged eight years) 3 feet 63 inches, making it in July 1868 to be 7 feet 6 inches in total height; whilst the young Cedar had only reached 7 feet in ten years.

The same able Dendrologist says that the Cedar of Lebanon "does not begin to produce cones till it is twenty-five or thirty years old," whereas this young Wellingtonia bore two cones and one male flower when six years of age, which was in June 1866; the last, or male flower, presented some scales with the anthers (small balls of an orange colour) placed within them.

The mode of growth with the young Cedar is by spreading out into horizontal branches, whilst that of the young Wellingtonia is pyramidal and upright, with all its lower portion beautifully branched. As the latter advances in age, it loses its lower branches for about one-third or more of its total height. Thus, in that colossal individual, the "Father of the Forest," it had lost its branches for about 200 feet from the ground; its entire height being 435 feet.

The author, in concluding, observed that the growth of large trees, and the formation of wood in the concentric zones or rings of the stems, required to be further and more attentively investigated, as it is a very important question in vegetable physiology.

Mr. Hogg illustrated his paper by copies of photographs of several Wellingtonias; and also one, representing a glorious primeval Cedar, taken last year in the Lebanon.

Notes on Two British Wasps, and their Nests, illustrated by Photographs.
By JOHN HOGG, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.

The author exhibited three photographs of wasps' nests; all, except one, he had found at Norton, in the county of Durham, from the years 1831 to 1856, both

inclusive. The first Plate represented the interior of the largest nest of Vespa arborea? of Mr. F. Smith; and the second and third five nests of the Vespa Britannica, with four of the wasps taken out of them.

Plate II. exhibited the more delicate and exquisitely fabricated nests of the Vespa Britannica of Leach, or, as other entomologists term it, V. Norvegica.

On some Organisms which live at the bottom of the North Atlantic, in depths of 6000 to 15,000 feet*. By Professor T. H. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

On the Necessity of Photographing Plants to obtain a better knowledge of them. By Dr. KARL KOCH.

The author drew attention to the advantage of photographs to the systematist for the comparison of plants. There are many plants of which the dry specimens in the herbarium are not sufficient, especially in the case of trees, where the best descriptions cannot give an idea of their physiognomy. The Liliaceous plants, and nearly all the Monocotyledons, in a dry state, give a bad view of their physiognomy. In the Botanic Garden and glasshouses at Berlin, such plants are cultivated which when photographed would give, more especially for monographers, good material for their description or their diagnosis. A collection of plant-photographs is being made at the Botanic Gardens at Berlin; and the author would thank possessors of gardens and greenhouses to send him photographs of interesting plants and trees. The author exhibited the photograph of an Aroideous plant, from which he was alone able to determine that the plant was new and to give a good diagnosis and description.

On the Specific Identity of the Almond and the Peach. By Dr. KARL Kocп. The author stated that he had travelled over the mountains of the Caucasus, Armenia, some parts of Persia and Asia Minor, during four years, for the purpose of studying the origin of our fruit-trees. Although the author could not assert that he had found them perfectly wild or run wild, he nevertheless had collected much interesting material. The author believes that our pears and apples, cherries, most plums, also peaches and apricots, are not natives of Europe. Only certain bad varieties of plums have their origin from Prunus insititia, the tree which grows in a wild condition in the woods of Europe. After discussing the wild stock of our cherries and pears, the author stated that apricots do not grow wild in Oriental countries, but may perhaps come from China and Japan, as also the peaches. In the east of Persia, however, a peach-shrub grows, which is intermediate between the almond and the peach-trees. For some time naturalists and gardeners have asserted that there is no difference between almond and peach-trees; that the latter is merely a variety in which the dry rind of the almond has become fleshy, and where at the same time the stone has acquired a rough surface. Botanists say also that the petioles of the almond-tree have at the superior end small glands, which are absent in the peach. But the nectarine, which is but a smooth-skinned peach, exhibits these same glands. The flowers are not readily distinguishable of peach and almond. On the shores of the Rhine a double-flowered variety grows, as to which it is not certainly known whether it is peach or almond. In England and France also there is a plant which is well known as the peach-almond, and which is a constant variety. This plant occasionally produces a branch bearing good peaches, but, as a rule, its fruit is intermediate in character. The property of atavism seems to prove the derivation of the peach from the almond; for occasionally a sound peach-tree will produce a branch bearing almond-like fruit.

On the Classification of the Species of Crocust. By Dr. KARL KOCH. Most botanists have only made use of the flowers and fruits of plants in the for

Published in extenso in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science for 1868. † Published in extenso in the Gardeners' Chronicle, September 12, 1868.

mation of genera; we have thus obtained, not natural, but artificial groups. For the formation of natural genera it is always necessary to know also the vegetation and the habit, both of which are very often in intimate connexion with the flowers and fruits. The author has studied for a long time the crocuses and their vegetation. The flowers of these plants do not always furnish good characters; the pro⚫portionate length of the stamens and the style, on which botanists lay great value, is only relative, and is not always sure. Better characters for the great divisions are to be drawn from the vegetation. The author has observed that many crocuses twist the leaves spirally when they are dry. The same crocuses have also a corm in which the scales or the sheaths are cut across transversely at the base. In this tribe of crocuses are found blue, purple, white, and yellow flowers, as in the other tribes, where the leaves are straight, and so tenacious that they can be used as twine. The corms of the latter have the scales minutely or strongly reticulated.

The author gave another example where the vegetation is of the greatest value for the systematist. Besides the leaves, the sheaths of the corms of the crocuses are also very important. He distinguished by this means four groups; first, crocuses with corms in which the scales are circumscissile near the base; secondly, crocuses where the scales are furnished with long and straight nerves; thirdly, crocuses where the scales or sheaths are finely, or, fourthly, where they are strongly reticulated.

The bracts and the number of the flowers give also good marks for the distinction of the species; we have crocuses with one and with two bracts, and with one or many flowers. When the author has finished his observations about the fruits and seeds, he hopes to publish a treatise on the subject.

Notes on the Flora of Skye.

By M. A. LAWSON, Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford.

During a short stay of a fortnight in the Isle of Skye in company with Professor Oliver and Mr. II. S. Fox, the author drew up a list of all the plants that came under their notice, and, since his return, compared it with others of the neighbouring islands and mainland. Of this comparison the following is the result.

Of the 389 species he found in Skye, the following 31 have never been recorded from the subprovince 32 of the Supplement to the Cybele Britannica : '— Vaccinium oxycoccus.

Nymphæa alba.

Draba incang.

Arabis petræa.

Prunus padus.

Rubus cæsius.

umbrosus, Arrh.
corylifolius.

Epilobium anagallidifolium.
Myriophyllum alterniflorum.
Ribes rubrum, var. spicatum.
Galium uliginosum.

Apargia hispida.

Hieracium anglicum.

iricum.

Arctium minus.

Carduus nutans.

Veronica montana.

Ajuga reptans.
Galeopsis Ladanum.
Stachys betonica.
Atriplex deltoidea.

Rumex conglomeratus.
Ulmus montana.

Fagus sylvatica.

Potamogeton perfoliatus.
-heterophyllus.
Eriocaulon septangulare.
Juncus compressus.
Scirpus fluitans.
Cistopteris fragilis.

Fifty-one species also are not recorded from the outer West Highlands, sub

province 33, including Islay, Mull, Skye, &c.

Anemone nemorosa.

Corydalis claviculata.

Sisymbrium thalianum.

Stellaria graminea.

Cerastium alpinum.

Rubus cæsius.

cordifolius.

umbrosus, Arrh.
corylifolius.

Rosa tomentosa.

Besides these two lists 120 species from the Hebrides have never been recorded: while 51 species are recorded from the Hebrides which either do not grow in Skye, or, what is much more probable, were overlooked by the author.

Ribes spicatum, Robson, with densely tomentose leaves, especially on the under surface, was discovered first at Uig, and then in large quantities on the cliffs about Dunvegan Head.

Any botanist with a month to spare would be yet amply repaid in further investigating the flora of this island; the more southern portion called the Sleat was hardly examined, and as it is quite different in its geological formation to the rest of Skye, a large number of species will in all probability be found, as yet unknown to the subprovince.

On the Discovery of Buxbaumia aphylla near London.

By M. A. LAWSON, Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. One day towards the end of April last during an excursion to Virginia Water, the author found on the freshly upturned clearings of a ditch, skirting a pine-wood, six specimens of this curious and interesting little moss. Although recorded from many parts of Scotland, it is but the third time it has been found in England. The first to find it in Great Britain was the late Sir William Hooker, who, when he was almost a boy, discovered it on some stumps of trees while shooting in Sprowston Woods in the neighbourhood of Norwich. Justly elated with this piece of good fortune, he gave himself up (he had thought little of botany before) to the study of plants. What, then, do we owe to this insignificant little moss? The third locality was Sawley Moor in Yorkshire, and both here and at Sprowston it has been found only once.

On Type Variation and Polymorphism in their relation to Mr. Darwin's
Theory of the Origin of Species. By BENJAMIN T. LOWNE.

The author considered the absence of any great departure from type directly opposed to any considerable modification having taken place by selection, that the simple absence of connecting links between different groups was in itself very difficult to explain, although perhaps the imperfection of geological record might fairly be urged in explanation, yet that the difficulty is vastly increased when we remember that if such forms ever existed, they have left no diverging descendants. If such a complex organ as the eye had been formed by natural selection, its identity of type and structure throughout the Vertebrata is inexplicable; whilst such forms as Talpa, Spalax, and Chrysochlorus do not represent connecting links in