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in which the habit and the minutest details of the gills were preserved. The precise method by which they are prepared has not at present been made known. The two groups, consisting of numerous species, were deposited in the Museum at Norwich.

On Arboriculture as a Science. By WILLIAM BROWN.

After referring to what he advanced on the same subject at Dundee last year, the author said that the practical observer and man of science agree in the belief that man, to a great extent, can control and regulate certain climatic agencies. He quoted Sir John Herschel in attestation of this, showing that it is in man's selection of the kind of vegetation that such influences are perceptible. The gist of Mr. Brown's argument last year was that, by a proper distribution of variouslysized plantations, man may come to suit, in degree, the climate to the plant, and not so much the plant to the climate, as he must do in present circumstances. Reference was also made to Mr. Symons's paper in 1865, on the Rainfall of the British Isles; and it was shown that, narrow as Britain is, its climate is materially influenced by local causes-these causes having respect to the area of surface occupied by trees. It is sometimes said, "Give me a good soil, and I will produce abundant crops;" but this sole condition as to quality of soil is not enough; for a favourable climate is even more important than a rich soil. It is a fact that, as regards the primitive soil, there is no difference betwixt the slopes of the Himalaya (where the Deodar and broad-leaved oak luxuriate) and a great part of Scotland, the soil in each case being principally from granite and mica-schist. The succession of pine to oak, or beach to pine, in indigenous forests, has no doubt depended more on changes of temperature than any other physical cause. The author then showed that the geographical distribution of rain cannot meet the requirements of all parts of a country, and thus the need of those modifying circumstances which man can command being brought into play; for while it is beyond his power to interfere with the periodicity of events, to modify them certainly is not. Mr. Symons acknowledges that "rainfall records evince a regularity not before expected." The observations of half a century make it clear that the rainfall of these isles is, for all practical or general purposes, a regular one. The present extent under wood in Great Britain would make a belt two miles broad all round the coast, which seems large, and might suffice both for health, shelter, and climatic uses, but it is not distributed to suit the different requirements of districts. Until this is done it is perfectly plain we will never secure adaptable climates, or make meteorology practically useful. But with the knowledge of these two facts (the general regularity of rainfall, and that local irregularities are governed mainly by local influences), are we still to carry on the same plan of observing, recording, and deducing? Is it not time to amend our course of procedure in relation to atmospheric science? The author proposed that a set of direct experiments should be established to test the deductions drawn from the general ones, which, if properly conducted, would doubtless lead to important results, and would at once lay the foundation for a new era in the history of our rural economy. The question which he set before meteorologists was at certain geographical positions, exposures, altitudes, and on certain geological formations, with and without artificial drainage, to what extent, and in what way, do trees and other vegetation exert their influences? The author concluded his paper by claiming for arboriculture a more prominent place under botany in connexion with the Association.

On the Progress of Oyster and Salmon Cultivation in England.
By FRANK BUCKLAND.

The author stated that, in his official capacity as Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, he had lately visited most of the rivers of England and Wales. The supply of salmon had been much increased owing to the protection of the Acts of Parliament. Still there remained much to be done. He complained bitterly of the impediments caused by weirs, which prevented the parent salmon ascending to the spawning-grounds. The author instanced Diglis weir, which was the “hall door”

of the great Severn; Chester weir, that blocked the Dee; Tadcaster weir, on the Wharfe, &c. Besides these large weirs, there were mill-weirs innumerable on most salmon rivers which would otherwise be highly productive. The study of salmon-ladders was of the greatest importance. He exhibited several models of ladders which might be applied to weirs at a reasonable cost, and without interfering with the water supply. The question of pollutions was a very serious one, not only for the fish, but also for the public health. He instanced the Dovey, the Tees, the South Tyne, &c., which were suffering under "hush" from the lead mines; the Fowey, the Camel, &c., which suffered from the débris of China-clay works and other mines; and he deprecated the habit of allowing chloride of lime to run into the rivers. Paper-makers were great culprits in this matter. The law of pollutions should be made much stronger. He earnestly requested the attention of the Section to the question of "close time" for salmon, as the evidence went to show that the Welsh, Cornish, and Devonshire rivers were "later rivers" than the Severn, Dee, Tay, Wye, &c. Mr. Buckland then expounded his theory as to the cause of the failure of oysters for the last six years. The cause of the success this year, he considered, was warm weather and tranquil water. He had published, in 'Land and Water,' temperatures taken daily, during the months of June, July, and August, at five different oyster fisheries. The results, he thought, confirmed his theory. He had obtained a heavy fall of spat at his experimental fishery at Reculvers, near Herne Bay. There had also been a fall of spat in the rivers Crouce, Roach, and on the grounds of the Herne Bay Oyster Company, but he believed that the Colne and the Blackwater had not been so favoured. The author called the attention of the public to his "Museum of Economic Fish Culture," at the Horticultural Gardens, Kensington. The author had hatched and sent away to different rivers nearly 40,000 salmon and trout last year; and in his collection would be found models, coloured casts of most of the economic fish, fishingnets, and other implements connected with the improvement of British fisheries, as well as a series showing the growth, development, and natural history of oysters. Samples of oysters from nearly all the British oyster fisheries were also exhibited.

On the Distribution of the principal Timber Trees of India, and the progress of Forest Conservancy. By Dr. HUGH CLEGHORN.

was

When the British Association met at Edinburgh in 1850, a committee appointed to consider "the probable effects, in an economical and physical point of view, of the destruction of tropical forests." Their report was presented in 1851 at Ipswich, and is printed in the volume for that year. Attention was thus directed in India to the importance of preserving every influence which tends to maintain an equilibrium of temperature and humidity, of preventing the waste of valuable material, and the special application to their various uses of the indigenous timbers of the country.

A few years later, forest establishments were sanctioned in British Burmah (1855), and in the Madras Presidency (1856); and in 1864 Government laid the foundation of an improved general system of forest administration for the whole Indian Empire, having for its object the conservation of state forests, and the development of this source of national wealth. The appointment of Inspector-General of Forests was made, and it is now held by Dr. D. Brandis, formerly the able conservator in British Burmah.

The executive arrangements were left to the local administrations, general principles being laid down, the most important of which is that all superior Government forests are reserved and made inalienable, and their boundaries marked out to distinguish them from waste lands available for the public. Act 7 of 1864, defining the nature of forest rules and penalties, has been adopted by most of the local Governments.

Valuation surveys have been made to obtain reliable data as to the geographic

*The late Dr. Forbes Royle, King's College, London; the late Colonel R. Baird Smith, R.E.; Colonel Richard Strachey, R.E.; Dr. H. Cleghorn, F.L.S.

distribution of the more valuable trees, the rate of growth, and the normal yield of the forests.

Bengal.-In British Sikkim and the Dooars of Bootan there are large tracts of Sál (Vatica robusta), not yet surveyed. The produce of these forests is required for any extension of the Eastern Bengal Railway which may be determined upon, and for the doubling of the East India line now in progress. In the Darjiling district the higher slopes above 6000 feet have been reserved, and plantations both of temperate and subtropical trees have been formed. In the Terai several thousand mahogany trees have been planted out-raised partly from seed naturalized at the Calcutta Botanic Garden, and partly from seed received from the West Indies through the Colonial Office and Dr. Hooker, Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. In Bengal the department had for two years the great advantage of being supervised by Dr. Thomas Anderson, whose botanical knowledge was of special value in the exploration of the little-known forests in Sikkim and Bootan.

North-West Provinces.-The recent surveys have added much to our knowledge of the forest resources of the north-west provinces. In Kumaon and Gurhwal the area surveyed is about 400,000 acres; a large part of this is covered with Pinus longifolia, bearing an average of fifteen trees per acre. The Himalayan Box is plentiful in certain localities, and has come into use in the schools of art for wood engraving. The Goruckpore forests cover 120,000 acres, and consist mainly of Sál (Vatica robusta), with an average of twenty-five well-grown trees to the acre. The northern limit of indigenous Teak is in Bundlekhund; it has been planted in the Punjab, but in that dry climate it is poor and stunted. The management of the forests of the north-west provinces is second in importance only to that of Burmah.

Oudh.-From the survey in Oudh it appears that more than half of the Government forest consists of Sál; the other reserved woods of greatest value are Sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo), Toon (Cedrela Toona), and Ebony (Diospyros Ebenum). Considerable sums have been expended in clearing the Sal trees of destructive twining plants, particularly Bauhinia Vahli, Argyreia speciosa, and other Convolvulacea.

Punjab.In the Punjab, the forests growing on the banks of the Five Rivers have been formed into so many ranges under skilled officers, and timber operations have been conducted with more or less success in the intra-montane districts. Long leases of the Deodar forests, in the territories of the Rajahs of Chamba and Bussahir, have been negotiated. Wood is the only fuel at present available in quantity for locomotive purposes. The requirement of the railway alone is estimated at 50,000 tons annually, and the yield of the old skikargahs, or fuel reserves, being inadequate, skilled management has been brought to aid the increased production of fuel.

Selected tracts have been trenched and ploughed before planting, and cattle and camels are strictly excluded. The services of two trained foresters have been secured. The suitability of some Australian trees to the arid plains of the Punjab is remarkable, and several species of Acacia, Casuarina, and Eucalyptus have been tried with apparent success. The northern limit of the Sál is on the bank of the Beas River, in the Kangra Valley, but here it is small and stunted.

Dr. J. L. Stewart is the conservator of the Punjab forests; he has contributed some valuable papers to the Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India, as "Tour in Hazara and Khagan," "Flora of the Peshawur Valley," and "Bijnour and its Trees."

Central Provinces. In the central provinces, the revenue settlement was proceeding when the Forest Department was sanctioned, and the demarcation of reserved tracts took place simultaneously, which was a great advantage. Six ranges have been established, and Teak plantations have been commenced on the Taptee and Nerbudda Rivers, and are to be steadily pursued on the plan of the Conolly plantations in Malabar. Two trained foresters from Scotland have been employed for some time. The attention of the department in this province is directed equally to Teak and Sál timber. The other reserved woods are Sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo), Saj (Terminalia tomentosa), and Bijasal (Pterocarpus marsupium).

Hydrabad. The forest operations have been more recently undertaken in the Hydrabad assigned districts. The character of the vegetation resembles that of

the Central Provinces, and the same species of trees are reserved. The only Teak tract is at Mailghat, north of Ellichpore, and it is carefully preserved.

Mysore. The territories of the Rajah of Mysore have always been famous for Sandalwood and Teak; the former occupies a remarkable belt about 30 or 40 miles inland from the crest of the Ghats, though fine self-sown patches are diffused over the whole tableland. In the adjoining district of Salem, a considerable quantity of Sandalwood has lately been discovered in the Collamully and Putchamully Hills, and two small patches occur in South Canara, but these are at a lower elevation, and the timber is inferior in quality. The western part of Mysore is clothed with fine forest, but much has of late given place to coffee culture. Tectona grandis, Dalbergia latifolia, and Calophyllum elatum (Beddome) furnish the most valuable timbers.

Burmah. The progress of forest administration in British Burmah has been steady, with a large increase in the forest revenue. In 1864-65 nine Teak forests were demarcated in the Tharawaddee division; the aggregate area of these is about 50 square miles. The necessity and importance of forming plantations is becoming every year more apparent. A recommendation to plant on a large scale was made forty years ago by Dr. Wallich, and afterwards by Dr. Helfer. It was again strongly urged by Sir A. Phayre and Dr. Brandis, in their joint report of June 1864, and planting is now systematically carried out. There are eight Teak plantations, which are being added to by annual increments, and planted in different ways to test the expense which must be incurred in raising Teak on a large scale. The facts recorded in the last report as to the germination of seed from different localities, and the measurement of growth of young trees, are interesting for comparison with the results obtained in Malabar and in Java. Further experience in management is annually gained, and it will be ascertained how far the same system is applicable to different provinces.

In Arracan, the most valuable timber is the Inga xylocarpa, termed Ironwood, from its exceeding hardness. The wood has been found useful for railway sleepers, and is exported to Bengal.

Madras.-The forests of Madras have for twelve years been under the care of a special department. The most valuable timber is Teak, which is to the south of India what Deodar is to the north, and Sál to the central provinces. Energetic efforts are being made to restore the woods in this Presidency, and very extensive plantations are formed, particularly in Malabar and South Canara (Teak), Neilgherries (Eucalyptus and Australian Acacia), Cudapah (Red Sanderswood), Shevaroys (Toon and Teak), and Sigur (Sandalwood). By far the most important of these are the Conolly Teak plantations in Malabar, which are rapidly increasing in value by the growth of the old plantation, and the annual increment of fresh planting. In 1866-67, 120,000 seedlings were planted out. The consumption of wood for railway fuel is enormous; a special train laden with wood for locomotives leaves Coimbatore, and another leaves Cudapah every day, in addition to the regular trains taking in wood at fuel stations. The natural jungles, which have hitherto supplied this large quantity, are in some districts so nearly exhausted that the mere protection of those which now exist will not yield a permanent supply. The natural reproduction of the indigenous jungles (where cattle are excluded) is expected to furnish a large supply of fuel, but it is further intended to form plantations for locomotive requirements. These, in accordance with the instructions of the Secretary of State, are to be under the management of the Forest Department, and their cost to be a charge in that department. These operations involve present and prospective outlay, with no returns till after the lapse of seven or eight years. This important branch of forest work must increase with the extension of railways, and it is hoped that the example set by Government may have the effect of stimulating private individuals to form similar plantations. The financial condition of the forest department in Madras is so far satisfactory. The total net surplus in eleven years, including the value of timber in store on 30th March 1867, is £180,000, or from £15,000 to £20,000 a-year. Within the last few years much has been done in the way of improving forest communications in remote and difficult places. Major Beddome, at present in charge of the forests, has done much for science, and is well known by his work on Indian Ferns.

Bombay. In the Presidency of Bombay the forest department is of old standing. Mr. N. A. Dalzell succeeded Dr. Gibson, the first conservator, and is an accomplished botanist. For some years the receipts have exceeded the expenditure by several lakhs, say, £30,000 annually. The demarcation of reserves in the Deccan has been in progress, and is a most important measure. The administration of the forests in Sind has received the commendation of Government. The demand for firewood for large towns, steamboats, and railways has augmented very considerably, showing the absolute necessity of husbanding the resources, so as to keep up a regular and abundant supply of fuel. Acacia arabica is the tree which thrives best in Sind, and the timber is much prized for many purposes.

The importance of continuing the forest surveys and of demarcating the reserved tracts was urged, and the want of a Flora sylvatica of India insisted upon.

On some of the Principal Modifications of the Receptacle, and their Relation to the "Insertion" of the Leaf-organs of the Flower. By ALEXANDER DICKSON, M.D., Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glas

gow.

The author called attention to some of the principal modifications of the receptacle affecting the "insertion" of the leaf-organs of the flower, which may be

classed as follows:

A. Modifications with superior ovary.

(a) Floral envelopes and stamens hypogynous: ex. Nuphar, &c.

(b) Floral envelopes perigynous (i. e. inserted on a more or less cup-shaped expansion of the receptacle); stamens hypogynous: ex. Passiflora, &c.

(c) Floral envelopes and stamens perigynous: ex. Prunus, &c.

B. Modifications with inferior ovary.

(a) Receptacle not expanded or prolonged beyond the flower; floral envelopes and stamens simply epigynous: ex. Hedera, &c.

(b) Receptacle expanded beyond ovary as a cup or tube, bearing the floral envelopes and stamens, which may here be said to be peri-epigynous: ex. Fuchsia, Victoria, &c.

(c) Receptacle prolonged beyond the ovary as a stalk-like process†, expanded at its extremity into a small cup which bears the floral envelopes and stamens, which here may be called hyper-peri-epigynous: ex. Circea. (d) Floral envelopes simply epigynous. Within these the receptacle is prolonged as a stalk, bearing the stamens and the true style (here almost reduced to stigmatic portion) at its extremity. The stamens may be here called hyper-epigynous: ex. Stylidium.

(e) Floral envelopes hypogynous; stamens epigynous: ex. Nymphæa. (f) Calyx hypogynous; corolla and stamens epigynous: ex. Codonopsis

cordata.

(g) Calyx hypogynous; corolla and stamens peri-epigynous: ex. Barclaya. C. Aberrant forms where the receptacle exhibits pit-like cavities or spur-like dilatations. Ovary superior or inferior.

* Pits or spurs occurring between the insertion of the petals and that of the

stamens.

(a) One receptacular pit (posterior); posterior sepal and two posterior petals perigynous; ovary superior ex. Pelargonium.

(b) One receptacular spur (posterior); posterior sepal, one-half of each lateral sepal and two posterior petals (or sometimes the entire floral envelopes) perigynous: ex. Trop@olum.

(c) One pit in receptacular prolongation beyond the ovary; stamens hyper-epigynous, somewhat resembling those in Stylidium: ex Semei

andra.

**Pits occurring between the insertion of the stamens and that of the carpels.

Such a stalk is, of course, not solid in a morphological sense; but is, potentially at least, a tube whose cavity is continuous with that of the style.--A. D.

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