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formerly a harlot. Such is the wonderful power of the bride-
groom, that he received her a harlot and made her a virgin. Un-
heard of and wonderful thing! With us, marriage puts an end
to virginity; but with God, marriage restores virginity. With us,
she who was a virgin is no longer so when married; with Christ,
she who was a harlot becomes, when married, a virgin." Again
he
says: "God loves an unchaste female, that is to say, our na
ture; God chooses her for his bride." These comparisons oc-
cur frequently in the same sermon. Respecting the mother of
the seven Maccabees he says (II. 748.), with infelicitous acute-
ness: "The sons were only seven martyrs. But the body of
their mother being added was indeed but one body, yet she filled
the space of twice seven martyrs, because she suffered martyr
dom with each of them." The following most trifling witticism
we also find: "Of these Maccabees, no one was the last; for the
seven constituted a chorus [a circle of dancers] and in a chorus
there is neither beginning nor end."

A specimen of allegory quite unduly extended occurs in the beginning of his second discourse on the fall of Eutropius (IIL 461.). "Sweet is a meadow, or a garden; but much sweeter the reading of the divine Scriptures. For the flowers there fade, but here are sentiments ever blooming. There the zephyr gently blows, but here the breath of the Spirit. There a thorn-hedge is the wall, here the care of God gives protection. There the birds warble, but here the prophets utter their strains. There is delight from vision, here is profit from hearing. A garden is lim ited to one spot; the Scriptures are everywhere. A garden is subject to the control of seasons; but the Scriptures are filled with leaves and loaded with fruits both in winter and in summer." At this point he passes on to other comparisons. "The reading of the Scriptures is to thee as a pilot; this cordage the trials of earthly affairs do not snap asunder.... A few days ago, the church was besieged; an armed force came, and sent forth fire from their eyes; but the olive tree was not withered." Thus he recurs to the allegorical comparison, which he had dropped, besides having pursued it entirely too far, of the Holy Scriptures with a garden.

In fine, Chrysostom's greatest fault is a want of well adapted arrangement in his mode of presenting subjects. The custom which prevailed in his time of not regarding exact divisions even in his sermons, as distinguished from more familiar addresses, the desire, as he himself professed, "to heal many and diverse wounds" in the shortest possible time, his natural vivacity of char.

1

1847.]

Preeminence of Chrysostom.

649

acter, and the ardor of his fancy, all, combined, led him to make those long digressions and to indulge in that great prolixity, which must be acknowledged as capital faults, and which render so many of his discourses, while excellent in individual passages, yet tedious and burdensome as a whole. Still the credit accorded to him, centuries ago, of having been the greatest orator of the ancient church, deserves to remain unimpaired. Not, that the other preachers of his time, were of small account, as compared with him. On the contrary, some among them, in a general view of their excellences, stand very near him; and several of them, so far as particular good qualities are concerned, even surpass this admired master. Macarius the Great excelled him in deep religious fervor; Ephrem's fancy was more ardent and splendid; Basil the Great could boast of a purer, easier, and more polished style, and of greater order in his sermons; Gregory Nazianzen and Gregory Nyssen were his superiors in dialectics. Yet, Chrysostom towers above all these, and above all his successors in the ancient church, since the particular excellences which they possessed belonged also to him, in a less degree, it is true, but in happier combination and in proper symmetry; while at the same time he possessed many other eminent oratorical qualities, in which those contemporary preachers were, more or less, deficient. Chrysostom became the greatest orator of his time, both by the harmony which naturally existed in his fine powers of mind, and by the well proportioned and unwearied cultivation which he bestowed on them all.

1 On this point his theory was unexceptionable, but in practice he exceeded all just limits. In his first Homily on the Obscurity of Prophecy (VI. 194.), he says very properly: "As in the case of persons not in good health, it is not proper to set a scanty and hastily prepared table, but a variety in the kinds of food is found necessary, that if one article is not taken another may be, . . . so it is often necessary to do in respect to spiritual food. Since we are weak, it is necessary to have in readiness a discourse of ample and various materials, containing comparisons, examples, arguments, well-wrought digressions, and many other such things, so that from among them a selection may be made of matter that will be profitable."

ARTICLE II.

THE FESTIVALS OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH COMPARED WITH THOSE OF OTHER ANCIENT FORMS OF RELIGION.

By Lyman Coleman, D. D., Professor in the College of New Jersey, Princeton.

JUSTLY to exhibit this comparison it will be necessary first to take a cursory view of those festivals which were instituted in the ancient church and have continued, with greater or less variations, until the present time. These resolve themselves into three grand divisions, in each of which there is one great festival bearing a peculiar relation to the other of the same class, as their common centre. These great festivals are Christmas, Easter and Whitsunday. Of these the first two relate to the scenes of Christ's humiliation on earth; the last to his glorious exaltation and pow er as displayed in the shedding forth of the Holy Spirit. Each of these feasts is preceded by preparatory rites, and followed by corresponding festivities. So that from the first of December to the Sunday of whitsuntide these successive solemnities form a connected representation of the leading events in the life of our Lord from his incarnation to his triumphant ascension. He became flesh and dwelt among us, subject to all the infirmities of our nature; he suffered and died; and arose in glorious power whereby he is able to provide for all his followers to the end of the world. These are the great truths in our Lord's history which this series of festivals commemorates. They remind us, both of the deepest humiliation and the highest exaltation of the Son of God, and represent the highest display of divine grace to man. The cycle of Christian festivals throughout illustrates historical truths of the deepest interest, and exhibits the relations of the Christian world to the great Head of the church. In both these respects they are well suited to exert a happy moral influence upon those who observe them.

Christmas commemorates the birth of Christ; God himself be. coming man. This great event indeed is represented by two so

1 Translated from the treatise of Dr. Karl Ullmann of Heidelberg entitled, "Vergleichende Zusammenstellung des christlichen Festcyclus mit den Vorchristlichen Festen." Re-printed from the third edition of Creuzer's Symbolik, 1843.

1947.]

Festival of Christmas.

651

lemnities; the birth of Jesus on the twenty-fifth of December, when this Divine Being entered on his earthly existence, and became subject to all the infirmities of human nature; and the day of his baptism on the sixth of January, when he first manifested himself as Christ, the promised Messiah. On this occa. sion his divine power and glory were publicly revealed; and, for this reason, the day is styled Epiphany, the manifestation.

For this day some preparation is necessary. The advent is accordingly celebrated four successive sabbaths previous by singing, prayer, and religious instruction. Just as the whole economy of grace, as manifested in the history of the Jews and taught by all the prophets, from Enoch to John the Baptist that stern preacher of repentance, was only preparatory to the coming of our Lord, so these festive days preceding Christmas are preparatory to a suitable celebration of his advent. They are designed to call to mind the promises to the fathers, and to excite an earnest expectation and longing for the fulfilment of the same.

The observance of the birth of Christ as a religious festival began in the fourth century in the church of Rome, and subsequently in the eastern church, on the twenty-fifth of December. By this solemnity it was proclaimed how the eternal Word became flesh; and how, by becoming man, he made it possible for man himself to become like God himself. But in addition to this union between God and man, Jesus, by being born of a woman, exhibited also the tenderest of all human relations, that of parent and child. Christmas therefore is a festive celebration expressive of the happiness of the human family, and of the purest relations of domestic life. All this the ancient church recognized in its instructions on this occasion, and ancient usage has established this significant import of the day.

The infancy of Jesus is also peculiarly honored by the festivals which are observed in immediate connection with this day. Since the fourth century it has been customary to celebrate, on the twenty-sixth of December, the death of Stephen the first martyr, as standing nearest the manger of the infant Saviour. The death of the martyr was, according to the phraseology of the ancient church, his birth-day. This connects itself immediately with the birth of Christ who gave him strength and grace for that scene of suffering in which he yielded up his spirit and fell asleep. But the soul of the holy martyr was not lost in death; it was only born to a new and nobler state. Hence the familiar saying of the

fathers: Heri natus est Christus in terris, ut hodie Stephanus nasceretur in coelis.

Next followed the memorial of John, the beloved disciple, which naturally connected itself with that of the birth of Christ. He especially taught us that the Word became flesh and dwelt among us. He was also a martyr; not indeed like Stephen, but in a spiritual sense. For it was the custom of the church to reckon all martyrs who fearlessly stood up as witnesses for the truth, not counting their own lives dear unto them, though they may at length have died a natural death.

As these days commemorate those who testified their love for Christ, the one, by a long life of undeviating fidelity, and the other, by a heroic death, so another commemorates those who, in tender, unconscious childhood, yielded up their lives for the pres ervation of the infant Saviour. The twenty-eighth of December, Innocents' day, was set apart in memory of the innocent children who suffered death by the jealous cruelty of Herod. Thus these martyr-feasts are connected with that of the birth of Christ. This connection illustrates the deep earnestness with which the ancient church regarded the death of Christ.

But the solemnities of this occasion may also be viewed in a more cheerful light. They present a delightful emblem of a holy family, of which the holy child Jesus is the principal object of interest. In this family John the beloved disciple was also included, having been recognized, after the death of Jesus, as the son of Mary. At the manger appeared also wise men from the east, with costly gifts, doing homage to him. Angels too, in songs from heaven, announced his advent. Thus all that is endearing in female worth, and maternal tenderness, in friendship, truth and childish innocence, combined with the profound reverence of the wise men, does but exalt the more the memory of that great day, on which was born our Saviour and our heavenly king who is Christ the Lord.

Between the day of the birth of Christ and of his manifestation, there is another which commemorates an important event of his life, his circumcision. Festum circumcisionis et nominis Jesu. The later fathers of the church connected with the observance of this day the festivities of the new year's day, by which means it was dishonored by many wanton and extravagant rites adopted from heathen nations. Jesus not only let himself down to all the infirmities of our nature, but was made under the Law, and sub

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