The most interesting to us are, of course, the man-like apes. Diard was told by the Malays, and he found it afterwards to be true, that the young Siamangs, when in their helpless state, are carried about by their parents, the males by the father, the females by the mother.1 Lieutenant C. de Crespigny, who was wandering in the northern part of Borneo in 1870, gives the following description of the Orang-utan: "They live in families-the male, female, and a young one. On one occasion I found a family in which were two young ones, one of them much larger than the other, and I took this as a proof that the family tie had existed for at least two seasons. They build commodious nests in the trees which form their feedingground, and, so far as I could observe, the nests, which are well lined with dry leaves, are only occupied by the female and young, the male passing the night in the fork of the same or another tree in the vicinity. The nests are very numerous all over the forests, for they are not occupied above a few nights, the mias (or Orang-utan) leading a roving life."2 According to Dr. Mohnike, however, the old males generally live with the females during the rutting-season only; and Mr. Wallace never saw two full-grown animals together. But as he sometimes found not only females, but also males, accompanied by half-grown young ones, we may take for granted that the offspring of the Orang-utan are not devoid of all paternal care.

3

More unanimous are the statements which we have regarding the Gorilla. According to Dr. Savage, they live in bands, and all his informants agree in the assertion that but one adult male is seen in every band. "It is said that when the male is first seen he gives a terrific yell that resounds far and wide through the forest. . . . The females and young at the first cry quickly disappear; he then approaches the enemy in great fury, pouring out his horrid cries in quick succession." 5 Again, Mr. Du Chaillu found "almost always one male with one female,

1 Brehm, 'Thierleben,' vol. i. p. 97.

2 Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,' vol. xvi. p. 177.

3 Mohnike, 'Die Affen auf den indischen Inseln,' in 'Das Ausland,' 1872, p. 850. See also Hartmann, ' Die menschenähnlichen Affen,' p. 230. 4 Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. i. p. 93.

Savage, 'Description of Troglodytes Gorilla, pp. 9, et seq.

though sometimes the old male wanders companionless;" 1 and Mr. Winwood Reade states likewise that the Gorilla goes "sometimes alone, sometimes accompanied by his female and young one."? The same traveller was told that, when a family of Gorillas ascend a tree and eat a certain fruit, the old father remains seated at the foot of the tree. And when the female is pregnant, he builds a rude nest, usually about fifteen or twenty feet from the ground; here she is delivered, and the nest is then abandoned.3

For more recent information about the Gorilla we are indebted to Herr von Koppenfells. He states that the male spends the night crouching at the foot of the tree, against which he places his back, and thus protects the female and their young, which are in the nest above, from the nocturnal attacks of leopards. Once he observed a male and female with two young ones of different ages, the elder being perhaps about six years old, the younger about one.4

When all these statements are compared, it is impossible to doubt that the Gorilla lives in families, the male parent being in the habit of building the nest and protecting the family. And the same is the case with the Chimpanzee. According to Dr. Savage," it is not unusual to see 'the old folks' sitting under a tree regaling themselves with fruit and friendly chat, while their children' are leaping around them and swinging from branch to branch in boisterous merriment."5 And Herr von Koppenfells assures us that the Chimpanzee, like the Gorilla, builds a nest for the young and female on a forked branch, the male himself spending the night lower down in the tree.

. Passing from the highest monkeys to the savage and barbarous races of man, we meet with the same phenomenon. With the exception of a few cases in which certain tribes are asserted to live together promiscuously-almost all of which

1 Du Chaillu, Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa,' P. 349. 2 Reade, Savage Africa,' p. 214. 3 Ibid., pp. 218, 214.

4 v. Koppenfells, 'Meine Jagden auf Gorillas,' in 'Die Gartenlaube,' 1877, pp. 418, et seq.

Savage, 'On Troglodytes Niger,' in 'Boston Journal of Natural History,' vol. iv. p. 385. 6 Die Gartenlaube,' 1877, p. 418.

assertions I shall prove further on to be groundless-travellers unanimously agree that in the human race the relations of the sexes are, as a rule, of a more or less durable character. The family consisting of father, mother, and offspring, is a universal institution, whether founded on a monogamous, polygynous, or polyandrous marriage. And, as among the lower animals having the same habit, it is to the mother that the immediate care of the children chiefly belongs, while the father is the protector and guardian of the family. Man in the savage state is generally supposed to be rather indifferent to the welfare of his wife and children, and this is really often the case, especially if he be compared with civilized man. But the simplest paternal duties are, nevertheless, universally recognized. If he does nothing else, the father builds the habitation, and employs himself in the chase and in war.

Thus, among the North American Indians, it was considered disgraceful for a man to have more wives than he was able to maintain.1 Mr. Powers says that among the Patwin, a Californian tribe which ranks among the lowest in the world, "the sentiment that the men are bound to support the women -that is to furnish the supplies-is stronger even than among us." Among the Iroquois it was the office of the husband "to make a mat, to repair the cabin of his wife, or to construct a new one." The product of his hunting expeditions, during the first year of marriage, belonged of right to his wife, and afterwards he shared it equally with her, whether she remained in the village, or accompanied him to the chase.3 Azara states that among the Charruas of South America, “du moment où un homme se marie, il forme une famille à part et travaille pour la nourrir;" and among the Fuegians, according to Admiral Fitzroy, "as soon as a youth is able to maintain a wife, by his exertions in fishing or bird-catching, he obtains the consent of her relations."5 Again, among the 1 Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker,' vol. iii. p. 109. Carver, 'Travels through the Interior Parts of North America,' p. 367. 2 Powers, 'Tribes of California,' p. 222.

3 Heriot, 'Travels through the Canadas,' p. 338.

* Azara, 'Voyages dans l'Amérique méridionale,' vol. ii. p. 22.

5 King and Fitzroy, 'Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, vol. ii. p. 182.

utterly rude Botocudos, whose girls are married very young, remaining in the house of the father till the age of puberty, the husband is even then obliged to maintain his wife, though living apart from her.1

To judge from the recent account of Herr Lumholtz, the paternal duties seemed to be scarcely recognized by the natives of Queensland.2 But with reference to the Kurnai in South Australia, Mr. Howitt states that "the man has to provide for his family with the assistance of his wife. His share is to hunt for their support, and to fight for their protection." As a Kurnai once said to him, "A man hunts, spears fish, fights, and sits about."3 And in the Encounter Bay tribe the paternal care is considered so indispensable, that, if the father dies before a child is born, the child is put to death by the mother, as there is no longer any one to provide for it.1

Among the cannibals of New Britain, the chiefs have to see that the families of the warriors are properly maintained.5 As regards the Tonga Islanders, Martin remarks, "A married woman is one who cohabits with a man, and lives under his roof and protection;" and in Samoa, according to Mr. Pritchard, "whatever intercourse may take place between the sexes, a woman does not become a man's wife unless the latter take her to his own house."7 Among the Maoris, says Mr. Johnston, "the mission of woman was to increase and multiply; that of man to defend his home." 8 In Radack, even natural children are received by the father into his house, as soon as they are able to walk.9

The Rev. D. Macdonald states that, in some African tribes, "a father has to fast after the birth of his child, or take some such method of showing that he recognizes that he as well as

1 v. Tschudi,' Reisen durch Südamerika,' vol. ii. p. 283.

2 Lumholtz, Among Cannibals,' p. 161.

6

3 Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai,' p. 206.

+ Meyer, Manners and Customs of the Encounter Bay Tribe,' in Woods, 'The Native Tribes of South Australia,' p. 186.

5 Angas, Polynesia,' p. 373.

Martin, Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands,' vol. ii. p. 167. 7 Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences,' p. 134.

8 Johnston, Maoria,' pp. 28, et seq.

9 Kotzebue, 'Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea,' vol. iii. p. 173.

the mother should take care of the young stranger."1 Certain Africans will not even go on any warlike expedition when they have a young child ; 2 and the South American Guaranies, while their wives are pregnant, do not risk their lives in hunting wild beasts.3 In Lado the bridegroom has to assure his father-in-law three times that he will protect his wife, calling the people present to witness. And among the Touaregs, according to Dr. Chavanne, a man who deserts his wife is blamed, as he has taken upon himself the obligation of maintaining her.5

9

The wretched Rock Veddahs in Ceylon, according to Sir J. Emerson Tennent, "acknowledge the marital obligation and the duty of supporting their own families." Among the Maldivians," although a man is allowed four wives at one time, it is only on condition of his being able to support them." The Nagas are not permitted to marry, until they are able to set up house on their own account. The Nairs, we are told, consider it a husband's duty to provide his wife with food, clothing, and ornaments; and almost the same is said by Dr. Schwaner with reference to the tribes of the Barito district, in the south-east part of Borneo.10 A Burmese woman can demand a divorce, if her husband is not able to maintain her properly. Among the Mohammedans, the maintenance of the children devolves so exclusively on the father, that the mother is even entitled to claim wages for nursing them.12 And among the Romans, manus implied not only the wife's subordination to the husband, but also the husband's obligation to protect the wife.13

11

1 Macdonald, 'Africana,' vol. i. p. 14.

2 Ibid., vol. i. p. 139.

3 Letourneau, Sociology,' p. 386.

4 Wilson and Felkin, 'Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan,' vol. ii. p. 90 5 Chavanne,' Die Sahara,' p. 209.

G Emerson Tennent, 'Ceylon,' vol. ii. p. 441.

7 Rosset, 'On the Maldive Islands,' in 'Journal of the Anthropological Institute,' vol. xvi. pp. 168, et seq.

8 Stewart, 'Notes on Northern Cachar,' in 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. xxiv. p. 614.

9 Emerson Tennent, vol. ii. pp. 458, et seq. note 1.

10 Schwaner, Borneo,' vol. i. p. 199. 11 Fytche, 'Burma,' vol. ii. p. 73.

12 Das Ausland,' 1875, p. 958.

13 Rossbach, 'Untersuchungen über die römische Ehe,' p. 32, & c.

C