fresh and suitable mate.1 M. Houzeau states, on the authority of Frédéric Cuvier, "Lorsque l'un des ouistitis (Harpale jacchus) du Jardin des Plantes de Paris vint à mourir l'époux survivant fut inconsolable. Il caressa longtemps le cadavre de sa compagne'; et quand à la fin il fut convaincu de la triste réalité, il se mit les mains sur les yeux, et resta sans bouger et sans prendre de nourriture, jusqu'à ce qu'il eût luimême succombé.” 2

Among the Indians of Western Washington and NorthWestern Oregon, says Dr. Gibbs, "a strong sensual attachment undoubtedly often exists, which leads to marriage, as instances are not rare of young women destroying themselves on the death of a lover."3 The like is said of other Indian tribes, in which suicide from unsuccessful love has sometimes occurred even among men. Colonel Dalton represents the Pahária lads and lasses as forming very romantic attachments; "if separated only for an hour," he says, " they are miserable."5 Davis tells us of a negro who, after vain attempts to redeem his sweetheart from slavery, became a slave himself rather than be separated from her. In Tahiti, unsuccessful suitors have been known to commit suicide; and even the rude Australian girls sings in a strain of romantic affliction

"I never shall see my darling again."

"8

As a man, under certain circumstances, desires many wives, so a woman may have several reasons for desiring a plurality of husbands. But the jealousy of man does not readily suffer any rivals, and, as he is the stronger, his will is decisive. Hence, where polyandry occurs, it is only exceptionally a result of the woman's wishes.

Various causes have been adduced for this revolting prac

1 Brehm, 'Bird-Life,' pp. 288, et seq.

2 Houzeau, 'Études sur les facultés mentales des animaux,' vol. ii. p. 117.

4 Waitz, loc. cit. vol. iii. p. 102.

6 Waitz, vol. ii. p. 117.

7 Wilkes, loc. cit. vol. iv. p. 45.

'Polynesian Researches,' vol. i. p. 267.

3 Gibbs, loc. cit. p. 198.

5 Dalton, loc. cit. p. 273.

Seemann, 'Viti,' p. 192. Ellis,

8 Waitz-Gerland, vol. vi. p. 756. For other instances, see ibid., vol. vi. p. 125; 'Das Ausland,' 1857, p. 888.

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L

tice. The difficulty of raising the sum for a wife, and the expense of maintaining women may perhaps in part account for it. Regarding polyandry in Kunawar, the Rev. W. Rebsch says that the cause assigned is not poverty, but a desire to keep the common patrimony from being distributed among a number of brothers.2 Some writers believe that polyandry subserves the useful end of preventing the woman from being exposed to danger and difficulty, when she is left alone in her remote home during the prolonged absences of her lord.3 According to the Sinhalese, the practice originated in the socalled feudal times, when the enforced attendance of the people on the king and the higher chiefs would have led to the ruin of the rice lands, had not some interested party been left to look after the tillage. But Sir Emerson Tennent remarks that polyandry is much more ancient than the system thus indicated it is shown to have existed at a period long antecedent to "feudalism." 4 To whatever other causes the practice may be attributed, the chief immediate cause is, no doubt, a numerical disproportion between the sexes.

1 Dalton, loc. cit. p. 33 (Miris). Cunningham, 'History of the Sikhs,' p. 18 (Tibetans). Fritsch, loc. cit. p. 227 (Damaras). Bastian, in 'Zeitschr. f. Ethnol.,' vol. vi. p. 388.

2 Stulpnagel, in 'The Indian Antiquary,' vol. vii. p. 134. Cf. Davy, loc. cit. p. 287.

3 Gordon Cumming, loc. cit. p. 406 (Tibetans). Beauregard, in 'Bull. Soc. d'Anthr.,' ser. iii. vol. v. pp. 264, et seq. (Massagetæ). See ante,

p. 116.

4 Emerson Tennent, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 429.

CHAPTER XXII

THE FORMS OF HUMAN MARRIAGE

(Concluded)

As to the history of the forms of human marriage, two inferences regarding monogamy and polygyny may be made with absolute certainty: monogamy, always the predominant form of marriage, has been more prevalent at the lowest stages of civilization than at somewhat higher stages; whilst, at a still higher stage, polygyny has again, to a great extent, yielded to monogamy.

As already said, wars, often greatly disturbing the proportion of the sexes among peoples with a highly developed tribal organization, exercise a much smaller influence in that respect in societies of a ruder type. As in such societies all men are nearly equal, and, to quote Mr. Wallace, "each man scrupulously respects the rights of his fellow, and any infraction of those rights rarely or never takes place,"1 no great scope is left for polygynous habits.

Plurality of wives has comparatively few attractions for the men of rude communities, where life is supported chiefly by hunting, and female labour is of slight value. In societies of a higher kind, the case is different. True, in such societies a man has to buy his wife, and women are often costly chattels ; but this obstacle to polygyny is more than counterbalanced by the accumulation of wealth and the distinction of classes. Nothing, indeed, is more favourable to polygyny than

1 Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. p. 460.

5

social differentiation. "In its highest and regulated form,"
Mr. Morgan justly observes, "it presupposes a considerable
advance of society, together with the development of superior
and inferior classes, and of some kinds of wealth." Speaking
of the Iroquois, Colden long ago remarked that, "in any
nation where all are on a par as to riches and power, plurality
of wives cannot well be introduced." 2 According to Waitz,
the reason why polygyny is very rare among the Hottentots
is, that they do not know of any disparity in rank and
wealth. The Rock Veddahs have no class distinction, and,
though each party among them has a headman-the most
energetic senior of the tribe,-he exercises scarcely any
authority. Almost the same may be said of most of the
monogamous savage peoples whom we have mentioned.
Thus, among the Pádams, all, except slaves, are equal in
rank; and of the Kukis it is said that all eat and drink
together, and that "one man is as good as another." & This
is true of the Chittagong Hill tribes in general, who
enjoy a perfect social equality, their nomadic life precluding
any great accumulation of wealth.7 Among the Hill Dyaks,
as Mr. Spencer observes, chiefs are unable to enforce genuine
subordination; the headman of each Bodo and Dhimál
village has but nominal authority; and the governor of a
Pueblo town is annually elected.8 In Tana, where the
authority of a chief does not seem to extend a gunshot
beyond his own dwelling, few chiefs have more than three
wives, and most of them have only one or two.9 On the
other hand, throughout Africa, polygyny and great class
distinctions occur simultaneously. We may therefore safely
conclude that polygyny became more prevalent in proportion
as differentiation increased with the progress of civilization.
It is a notable fact that the higher savages and barbarians

1 Morgan, 'Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity,' p. 477.
2 Quoted by Schoolcraft, loc. cit. vol. iii. p. 191.

3 Waitz, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 341.

4 Emerson Tennent, loc. cit. vol. ii. pp. 442, 440.

5 Dalton, loc. cit. p. 28.

7 Ibid., p. 343.

6 Lewin, loc. cit. p. 253.

8 Spencer, 'The Principles of Sociology,' vol. i. p. 677.

9 Turner, 'Samoa,' pp. 315, 317.

indulge in this practice to a greater extent than the very lowest races. These, with few exceptions, are either strictly monogamous, or but little addicted to polygyny. The lowest forest tribes in Brazil and the interior of Borneo are monogamous. Among the Veddahs and Andamanese, monogamy is as rigidly insisted upon as anywhere in Europe. According to Captain Lewin, the monogamous Toungtha are “unamenable to the lures of civilization," and he thinks it will be found difficult, if not impossible, to wean them from their savage life. The Mrús are despised as wild men by the polygynous Khyoungtha;2 and the Californians, who, according to Mr. Powers, were far less addicted to polygyny than the Atlantic Indians, are “a humble and a lowly race, one of the lowest on earth.” 3

Certain peoples who were originally monogamous are known to have adopted polygyny under the influence of a higher civilization. Thus, according to Professor Vámbéry, there is not a single indication that polygyny was an institution of the primitive Turco-Tartars, and even now it is almost unknown among the nomadic peoples of that race.* Dr. Mason and Mr. Smeaton state that, among the Karens, it is occasionally practised only by those who are brought much in contact with the Burmese.5 Among the Hindus, according to Mr. Dutt, polygyny seems to have grown in the latter part of the Vedic age, as there are scarcely any allusions to it in the earlier hymns. Goguet observes that "fables which can be traced back to the earliest times give us no instance of any man's having more than one lawful wife." Although the majority of the heroes in the writings of Kalidasa are described as polygynists, the principal divinities whom the Hindus acknowledge are repre

1 Lewin, loc. cit. p. 191.

2. Ibid., p. 231.

3 Powers, loc. cit. pp. 406, 5.

↑ Vámbéry, ' Die primitive Cultur des turko-tatarischen Volkes,' p. 71. 5 Mason, in 'Jour. As. Soc. Bengal,' vol. xiii. pt. ii. pp. 19, et seq. Smeaton, loc. cit. p. 81.

Dutt, in 'The Calcutta Review,' vol. lxxxv. p. 79.

7 Goguet, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 22.

8 Balfour, loc. cit. vol. iii. p. 252.