About this book
My library
Raamatud teenuses Google Play
CHAPTER XVI
THE HARVESTING ANTS
I. The Origin and Development of the Harvesting Habit .... 267
II. Early Observations
III. Observations of European Harvesters by Moggridge,
268
269
Forel, André, Emery and Others
IV. The North African Harvester Oxyopomyrmex santschii.. 273
V. The Asiatic Harvesters Pheidole, Holcomyrmex and Phei-
dologeton
275
noplus
276
VI. The Australian Harvesters Pheidole longiceps and Mera-
VII. The American Harvesters (Solenopsidii and Myrmicii)... 278
1. Solenopsis geminata, the "fire ant." 2. The Genus Pheidole.
3. The Genus Messor. 4. Ischnomyrmex cockerelli and
albisetosus. 4. The Genus Pogonomyrmex. (a) Char-
acterization, Range, and Classification. (b) Pogonomyrmex
imbericulus, etc. (c) The Florida Harvester, etc. (d)
The Texan Harvester and the Ant-rice" Theory. (e)
The Marriage Flight of the Texan Harvester. (f) The
Founding of Colonies by P. molefaciens. (g) The Occident
Harvester. (h) The Stinging Habits of Pogonomyrmex.
CHAPTER XVII
THE RELATIONS OF ANTS TO VASCULAR PLANTS
...
I. The Hypothesis of Mutualism between Ants and Plants 294
II. Plant Adaptations Apparently Indicating Symbiosis ..... 295
1. Dwelling-places for Ants. (a) Cavities in Stems. (b)
Tubers, Bulbs, Pseudobulbs, Rootstocks, etc. (c) Ascidia
or Bursæ of Leaves and Petioles. (d) Spaces between or
under Leaves. (e) Thorns. (f) Seed-pods. (g) Galls.
2. Food-supplies for Ants. (a) Floral Nectaries. (b)
Extrafloral Nectaries. (c) Food-bodies. (d) Bead-glands
("Perldrüsen "). (e) Pith and Other Vegetable Tissues.
III. The Ants Dwelling on Plants.
1. The Arboreal Genera. 2. The Habits and Structural
Adaptations of Azteca and Pseudomyrma, and their Rela-
tions to the Problem. 3. The Relations of Azteca muelleri
to Cecropia adenopus. 4. The Relations of Ants to Myrme-
codia, Hydnophytum and Myrmephytum. 5. The Relations
302
of Pseudomyrma bicolor to Acacia sphærocephala. 6. Other
Acacias Inhabited by Ants. 7. Other Examples Found in
South America.
IV. Other Relations of Ants to Plants
I. Ants as Seed Distributors. 2. Ant-Gardens. 3. Plants
Injurious to Ants.
CHAPTER XVIII
315
THE FUNGUS-GROWING ANTS
I. The Symbiotic Relation between the Fungus-growing Ants
the Fungus. 3. The Genus Apterostigma. 4. The Genus
Cyphomyrmex.
VI. The Source and Nourishment of the Fungus in the Colony.
(Observations of Sampaio, von Ihering, Goeldi and
Huber.)
....
VII. The Fungus-growing Ants of the United States.
(a) Personal Observations on-1. Cyphomyrmex. 2. Myceto-
soritis. 3. Trachymyrmex. 4. Mællerius. 5. Atta s. str.
(b) General Considerations. I. Advance in the Fungus- growing Habit. 2. Condition of our Knowledge as to the Origin of the Habit.
CHAPTER XIX
329
333
THE RELATIONS OF ANTS TO PLANT-LICE, SCALE-INSECTS, TREE-
HOPPERS AND CATERPILLARS
I. The Liquid-excreting Insects Attended by Ants
II. Relations of Ants with Aphids
1. Habits of Aphids. 2. Behavior of Aphidicolous Ants.
3. The Abdominal Siphons of Aphids.
339
340
www
III. Relations of Ants with Coccids ...
347
IV. Relations of Ants with Jumping Plant-lice
349
V. Relations of Ants with Tree-hoppers
350
VI. Evidences for "Mutualism" in the Relations of Ants with
Homoptera in General
351
1. Adaptations of Aphids. 2. Adaptations of Ants.
I. Description of the Honey-storing Habit
II. The Species of Honey Ants
1. Melophorus bagoti and cowlei. 2. Leptomyrmex rufipes.
3. Plagiolepis trimeni. 4. Camponotus inflatus. 5. Myrme-
cocystus melliger, mexicanus and horti-deorum. (a) Early
Observations. (b) McCook's Observations on M. horti-
deorum. (c) Forel's Observations. (d) Personal Obser-
vations. 6. Cremastogaster inflata and difformis.
361
363
III. The Causes of Repletion
374
IV. Relations of Nest Structure and Situation to the Develop-
ment of Repletes
375
V. Adaptations of Diet in Ants Living in Desert Regions.... 376
CHAPTER XXI
PERSECUTED AND TOLERATED GUESTS
I. Extranidal and Intranidal Symbiosis
II. Myrmecophiles in General
3.
1. History of Investigations. 2. Number and Diversity.
Causes of the Myrmecophilous Habit. 4. Ethological Classi-
fication. 5. Progressive Adaptation in the Four Groups.
III. The Synechthrans
IV. The Synceketes
1. Neutral Synoketes. 2. Mimetic, Loricate, and Symphyloid
Synœketes. 3. The Myrmecocleptics. 4. The Strigilators.
378
379
382
383
CHAPTER XXII
TRUE GUESTS, ECTO- AND ENTOPARASITES
I. General Characteristics of the Relations of the True Guests
and Parasites to the Ants
II. The Symphiles-Structural Adaptations
1. Symphilic Coloration. 2. Trichomes. 3. Mouth-parts. 4.
Antennæ.
III. Typical Symphiles
4. The
1. The Paussidæ. 2. The Gnostidæ, Ectrephidæ, and Cossy-
phodidæ. 3. The Clavigeridæ and Pselaphidæ.
Lomechusinæ. (a) Summary of Life History. (b)
Pseudogynes. 5. Critique of Wasmann's Theories of
"Amical Selection" and "Special Symphylic Instincts."
398
402
IV. Ectoparasites
412
1. The Phorid Metopina. 2. The Gamasid Antennophorus,
etc. 3. The Sarcoptid Tyroglyphus. 4. The Thorictidæ.
5. The Chalcididæ.
V. Entoparasites
419
1. Coleoptera. 2. Diptera. 3. Hymenoptera. 4. Nematodes.
VI. Comparison of Modifications of Hosts Induced by the Three
1. Definition. 2. Classification. (a) Compound Nests. (b)
Mixed Colonies.
II. Types of Social Symbiosis in Compound Nests
I. Plesiobiosis. 2. Parabiosis. 3. Cleptobiosis. 4. Lesto-
biosis. (a) Pheidole calens. (b) Solenopsis fugax. (c)
Diplomorium longipenne. (d) Carebara vidua, etc. (e)
Other Lestobiotic Ants. 5. Phylacobiosis. 6. Xenobiosis.
(a) Formicoxenus nitidulus. (b) Formicoxenus ravouxi
and corsicus. (c) Xenomyrmex stolli. (d) Phacota
sicheli and noualhieri. (e) Myrmoxenus gordiagini. (f)
421
422
423
424
1. History of the Subject. 2. Establishment of the Normal
Colony. 3. Redundant and Defective Types of Colony
Formation. 4. Three Forms of Effecting Adoption of
Queens in Alien Colonies, and Their Phylogeny.
II. Definition and Extent of Temporary Social Parasitism... 440
III. The Known and Hypothetical Cases of Temporary Social
Parasitism
1. Microgynous Formica of the rufa Group. 2. Macrogynous Formica of the rufa Group. 3. The Formica of the exsecta Group. 4. Bothriomyrmex. 5. Aphænogaster. 6. Oxygyne.
IV. General Conclusions
441
CHAPTER XXV
THE SANGUINARY ANTS, OR FACULTATIVE SLAVE-MAKERS
I. Definition and General Description of the Dulotic Instincts 452
II. Distribution and Species of Slave-making Ants
III. The Facultative Slave-makers
1. The European sanguinea. (a) Description of the Species.
(b) Ratio of Slave-holding to Slaveless Colonies of san-
guinea. (c) The Tactics of the Foray. (d) The Purpose
of the Foray. (e) Comparison with the Rapacious Dorylines.
2. The American sanguinea. (a) The Variety of North
American Forms. (b) Comparison with the European
Type. (c) Personal Observations of sanguinea Forays.
3. The Founding of the sanguinea Colony. (a) Experi-
ments and Conclusions. (b) Comparison with the Colonies
of Temporary Parasites. (c) Solution of the Problem of
the Dulotic Instincts.
454