All Asiatic nations were great warriors. Among these nations, the Persians were not the least remarkable for their military genius. This might arise in part from the situation of their country, which is rugged and mountainous. From this circumstance, they were accustomed to hard and frugal living, which imparts that ruggedness to the nature of man so essential to form the warrior. And there being no softening influences in the general manners, and in the religion of the Persians, their minds became accustomed to the deadly strife, and their hands skilful in the terrible art. Hence it was that the Persians, in due time, became masters of so many nations; for, in the course of nature, the strong must prey upon the weak. Their brute force exceeded that of other nations, and they were enabled thereby to render them tributary. This is the awful picture of man by nature in all ages of the world.

"As rolls the river into ocean,

In sable torrent, widely streaming; As the sea-tide's opposing motion,

In azure column proudly gleaming,
Beats back the current many a rood,
In curling foam and mingling flood;
While eddying whirl and breaking wave,
Roused by the blast of winter, rave;
Through sparkling spray, in thundering clash,
The lightnings of the waters flash
In awful whiteness on the shore,

That shines and shakes beneath the roar :
Thus as the streams and ocean greet
With waves that madden as they meet,
Thus join the bands whom mutual wrong
And reckless fury drive along."

According to Strabo, the Persians were trained up to the service from their tender years, by passing through different exercises, as riding, hunting, and handling the bow. As soon as they were able to bear arms, they were obliged to enter themselves in the list of soldiers, but they received no pay till they were twenty years of age. In war times, they were all bound, on pain of death, except such as were disabled by age or infirmity, to appear under their respective standards, and attend the king in his expeditions. This may be gathered from two incidents related

⚫ A gold coin, worth about twelve shillings each.

by Herodotus. One of these incidents will suffice for illustration. The same Pythius who had entertained Xerxes with so much magnificence, and who had offered all his wealth in support of the war which that monarch was going to wage against Greece, being intimidated by the prodigy of an eclipse, and deriving confidence from the liberality he had shown to Xerxes, thus addressed him: "Sir," said he, "I entreat a favour no less trifling to you, than important to myself." Xerxes promised to grant it; and Pythius, thus encouraged, continued: "Sir, I have five sons, who are all with you in this Grecian expedition; I would entreat you to pity my age, and dispense with the presence of the eldest. Take with you the four others, but leave this to manage my affairs, and may you return in safety after the accomplishment of your wishes." Pythius had no sooner uttered this request, than the haughty monarch, transported with rage, and forgetful both of his own promise, and the merits of Pythius, commanded his eldest son to be slain. Such was the nature of oriental despotism.

Herodotus speaks of a body of troops appointed to be the king's guard, who were called "the immortals." They derived this name from the circumstance of their body always consisting of the same number, 10,000; for as soon as one died, another was selected to fill his place. The establishment of this body very probably had its origin with the 10,000 whom Cyrus sent for out of Persia to be his guard. They were distinguished by the richness of their armour, and by their valour. Curtius mentions another body, consisting of 15,000 men, designed in like manner to guard the monarch: these were called Doryphori, or spearmen.

The ordinary arms of the Persians were a sabre, or scimitar, acinaces, as the Latins call them; a kind of dagger, which hung in their belt on the right side; and a javelin, or pike, having a sharp pointed iron at the end. They also made great use of the bow, and the sling was not unknown amongst them. The Persians, when engaged in war, wore on the head a tiara, or head-piece, so thick that it was proof against all offensive arms. The foot soldiers, for the most part, wore cuirasses made of brass, which were so artificially fitted to their bodies, that they did not impede the motion and agility of the different members. The horsemen wore vambraces, or greaves, which covered their arms, thighs, and legs. Their horses had their faces, chests, and flanks covered with brass.

Concerning the shields of the Persians, there is much difference of opinion. It would appear, however, that they at first made use of very small and light ones, made only of twigs of osier. Afterwards, they had shields of brass, which were of great length.

Before the age of Cyrus, the Persian and Median armies consisted chiefly of archers, and those who used missile weapons. These he reduced to a very few, arming the rest at all points, that they might be able to meet in close combat. To Cyrus is ascribed also the introduction of chariots of war among the Persians. These had been long time in use, as appears both from sacred and profane writers. Homer, describing an ancient war-chariot, says:

"Hebe to the chariot rolled

The brazen wheels, and joined them to the smooth
Steel axle: twice four spokes divided each,
Shot from the centre to the verge. The verge
Was gold, by fellies of eternal brass
Guarded, a dazzling show! The shining naves
Were silver; silver cords, and cords of gold,
The seat upbore; two crescents blazed in front.
The pole was argent all, to which she bound
The golden yoke with its appendant charge,
Inserted braces, straps, and bands of gold."

This extract exhibits the great perfection to which the art of chariot-building had attained before the days of Cyrus. These chariots had only two wheels, and were generally drawn by four horses abreast, with two men in each; one of distinguished valour, who engaged the enemy, and another to guide the chariot. Cyrus altered the form of the chariot, and thereby enabled both the driver of the chariot and the warrior to He also caused the engage in the combat. chariots to be made stronger, and the axle-trees of greater length than usual, in order to prevent their overturning. History records, moreover, that he was the first who affixed that deadly weapon, the scythe, to the chariot, of which such cruel use was made in after ages. At a later date, the Persians added iron spikes at the end of the pole, in order to pierce every thing that came in the way, and sharp knives at the hinder part of the chariot, to prevent any one from taking possession, or meeting their warriors on their own ground. These chariots were used many ages by the eastern nations, and they were looked upon as the principal strength of armies, as an ensurance of victory, and as an apparatus best calculated to inspire terror into the hearts of the enemy. In proportion, however, as the military art improved, inconveniences were discovered in them, and they were finally laid aside. For in order to reap any advantage from them, it was necessary that vast and extensive plains, devoid of rivulets, woods, or vineyards, should be the scene of the strife. And even in such places, they eventually became useless. Man, ever fruitful in invention for the preservation of his own life and the destruction of his foes, in order to counteract the evils attendant upon these terrible machines of mischief, discovered that the cutting of trenches rendered them of no avail. This was accordingly executed, and the war-chariot was stopped mid-way in its course. Sometimes, also, the opposing force would attack the chariots with slingers, archers, and spearmen, who, spreading themselves on every hand, would pour such a storm of stones, arrows, and lances upon them, accompanying the attack with fearful war-eries, that they terrified the horses, and often made them turn upon their own forces. At other times, they would render the chariots useless and incapable of operation by simply marching over the space which separated the two armies with extraordinary alacrity, and advancing upon the enemy before they had time to put them in motion; for the strength and execution of the war-chariots proceeded from the length of their course. This it was which gave that impetuosity to their motion, without which they were harm less. To the impetuosity with which the warchariot was wont to be urged onwards in war

there are several interesting allusions in Holy Writ, to which the reader is referred. See Psa. civ. 3; Isa. lxvi. 15; Sol. Song vi. 12; Hab. iii. 8.

The method used by Cyrus, in order to obtain perfect discipline among his soldiers in times of peace, was by inuring them to fatigue, and keeping them employed in laborious works. To prepare them for battle, he accustomed them to mock engagements, in which he inspired them with resolution and courage by exhortation, commendation, and reward.

When the Persians went on an expedition, their wives, mothers, and children followed the

camp; a custom which was observed among all

oriental nations. The motive for this custom was to inspire them with courage, lest they should lose every thing that was dear to them in life. Their provisions and baggage were carried on camels, the soldiers simply bearing their arms.

The manner in which the Persians marched may be gathered from the description which Herodotus gives of the march of the army of Xerxes from Sardis. "First of all went those who had the care of the baggage; these were followed by a promiscuous body of strangers of all nations, without any regularity, but to the amount of more than half the army. After these was a considerable interval, for these did not join the troops where the king was. Next came 1000 horse, the flower of the Persian army, who were succeeded by the same number of spearmen, in like manner selected, trailing their pikes upon the ground. Behind these were ten sacred horses, called Nisæan,* with very superb trappings. The sacred car of Jupiter was next in the procession. It was drawn by eight white horses, behind which, on foot, was the charioteer, with the reins in his hands, for no mortal was permitted to sit in this car. Then came Xerxes himself in a chariot drawn by Nisæan horses; by his side sate his charioteer, whose name was Patiramphes, son of Otanes the Persian.

"Such was the order in which Xerxes departed from Sardis; but as often as occasion required he left his chariot for a common carriage.† One thousand of the first and noblest Persians attended his person, bearing their spears according to the custom of their country; and 1000 horse, selected like the former, immediately succeeded. A body of 10,000 chosen infantry came next; 1000 of these had at the extremity of their spears a pomegranate of gold; the remaining 9000, whom the former enclosed, had in the same manner pomegranates of silver. They who preceded Xerxes, and trailed their spears, had their arms decorated with gold; they who followed him had pomegranates of gold; these 10,000 foot were followed by an equal number of Persian cavalry. At an interval of about a quarter of a mile, followed a numerous, irregular, and promiscuous multitude."

* Suidas says that these horses were also remarkable for swiftness. See page 24, which speaks of the Nisæan horses.

+ Larcher remarks that the Harmamaxe was a carriage appropriated to females. Lucretius says that the first heroes were mounted on horses, for chariots were a more modern invention. His words are,

"Mounted on well rein'd steeds in ancient time,
Before the use of chariots was brought in,
The first brave heroes fought."

When the Persians made war upon any nation, they preceded it by sending heralds, or ambassadors, to demand earth and water; that is, to command them to submit, and acknowledge the king of Persia as their lord. Xerxes made this demand of the Greeks, and among those who complied with his demand, or acknowledged his sway, were the Thessalians, Dolopians, Enians, the Peræbi, Locri, Magnetes, Melians, Achæans of Pthiotis, Thebans, and the rest of the people of Boetia, except the Thespians and Platæans. This manner of declaring war was borrowed from the Medes, and the Medes seem to have imitated the Assyrians in this respect, as appears from the book of Judith, chap. ii.

In the time of action, the kings of Persia were always in the centre; and according to Stobæus, they used to encourage their soldiers with a speech. The signal was given by the sound of the trumpet, which was followed by a shout of the whole army. The watch-word was in use among the Persians; for Xenophon, speaking of Cyrus, tells us that his was, "Jupiter, our leader and protector." The royal banner was a spread eagle of gold, carried on the point of a long spear. They appear to have reckoned those happy who died in the field; and they inflicted exemplary punishments on such as abandoned their posts, or deserted their colours. Justin says that they used no stratagems, and despised advantages that did not result from valour; that is, as Ammianus Marcellinus well expresses it, they thought it unjust to steal a victory.

The celebrated battle of Thymbra conveys a just idea of the tactics of the ancients in the days of Cyrus, and shows how far their ability extended in the use of arms and the disposition of armies. The reader will find this described in the life of Cyrus.

The manner of mustering among the Persians was very remarkable. Before they took the field, they passed before the king, or his general, each man throwing an arrow into a basket. These baskets were sealed up with the regal signet till they returned from the campaign, when they passed muster in the same manner, every one taking an arrow out of the same basket. When they were all passed, the remaining arrows were counted, and from their number they knew how many had fallen. This ancient custom continued to the days of Procopius, who relates it in his account of the wars of the Persians.

Such was the mode of ancient Persian warfare in the open field. Their sieges were conducted with great skill. In them we trace the same fundamental rules of fortification as are exhibited in modern warfare. It is true, that since the invention of that fearful combustible, gunpowder, (about A.D. 1320,) cannons have been substituted for the battering ram, and musket shot for balista, catapultæ, scorpions, slings, javelins, and arrows; but with this exception, the ancients made as much use of their inventive faculties for ensuring victory as do the moderns. At all events, they made as much of the solidity of bodies, and the mechanical powers of motion, as art and ingenuity would admit. They understood, also, the art of entrenchment, of scaling the walls, and of fortifying those walls with

But the Persians were not always so celebrated in this fearful art. Bossuet, speaking of the decline of their power, says: "After the death of Cyrus, the Persians, generally speaking, were ignorant of the advantages that result from discipline, skill in drawing up an army, order in marching and encamping, and, in short, that happiness of conduct which puts great bodies in motion without disorder or confusion. Full of a vain ostentation of their power and greatness, and relying more upon strength than prudence, upon the number, rather than the choice of their troops, they thought they had done all that was necessary when they had drawn together immense armies, who fought, indeed, with resolution, but without order; and who found themselves encumbered with the vast multitudes of useless persons who formed the retinue of the king and his chief officers. For to such a height was their luxury grown, that they would needs have the same magnificence, and enjoy the same pleasure and delights in the army as in the king's court; so that in their wars the kings marched accompanied with their wives, their concubines, and their eunuchs. Their silver and gold plate, and their gorgeous furniture were carried after them in prodigious quantities; and, in short, all the equipage and utensils a voluptuous life requires. An army composed in this manner, and already clogged with the excessive number of troops, was overburdened with the multitude of attendants. In this confusion, the troops could not act in concert; their orders failed to reach them in time, and in action every thing went on at random, without the possibility of remedy from the skill of the commander. Add to this, the necessity they were under of finishing an expedition quickly, and of passing into an enemy's country with great rapidity; because such a vast body of people, greedy not only of the necessaries of life, but of such things, also, as were requisite for luxury and pleasure, consumed every thing that could be met with in the country they occupied in a short time; nor, indeed, it easy to comprehend from whence they could procure subsistence.

"With all this vast train, however, the Persians astonished those nations that were not better acquainted with military affairs than themselves; and many of those that were more expert were yet overcome by them, being either weakened by internal dissensions, or overpowered by the numbers of their foes. By this means it was, that Egypt, proud as she was of her antiquity, her wise institutions, and the conquests of Sesostris, became subject to the Persians. Nor was it difficult for them to conquer Lesser Asia, and even such Greek colonies as the luxury of Asia had corrupted. But when they came to engage with Greece itself, they found, what they had never met with before, regular and well-disciplined troops, skilful and experienced commanders, soldiers accustomed to temperance, whose bodies were inured to toil and labour, and rendered robust and active by wrestling and other exercises practised in that country. The Grecian armies, indeed, were but small; but they were