As an example of the extraordinarily low rate at which produce may be carried from America to England, a contract was made last August for the carriage of flour from Oswego to Liverpool for 25s. per ton. A ton of flour being equal to about six quarters of wheat, the freight at that time to be placed against all the charges that weigh upon the English farmer was about 4s. 2d. per quarter.

Since then, it is true, freight has considerably advanced, owing to the unprecedentedly large quantities of all kinds of American produce sent forward; and it has been stated that such a low rate as that above. quoted cannot be expected again. But considering the large amount of tonnage now afloat, and the constant adoption of fresh inventions for economizing both space and fuel, it is not improbable that when a good harvest in Europe reduces the amount of American produce to be transported, the competition for the carriage of this reduced amount will bring the rates of freight back to as low, if not a lower point than then prevailed; whilst if an increased demand for English manufactures should give a remunerative freight outwards, even this low rate may leave a fair profit.

The agricultural depression of the past year has brought forcibly before our notice not only the enormous capacity of America for producing wheat, but also the cheapness with which it can be grown and conveyed to England, so as to leave a profit to the farmer. So far from this source being exhausted, it is as yet very partially developed. The single state of Minnesota, comprising over 53,000,000 acres, or an area equal to two-thirds that of the British Islands, produced in 1877 upwards of 33,000,000 bushels of wheat; and, in addition, fed vast herds of cattle, which were forwarded to Chicago, a distance of 800 miles, at a cost of 138. per head-a fact which is also well worthy of attention, pointing as it does to a largely increasing export to England of cattle and meat, as well as grain.

Did space permit, it would be easy to show how rapidly cheap railways and low freights are developing in the United States a vast production of grain with which our English farmers will necessarily have to compete. But probably, as has been already pointed out, a still more formidable competition will arise from the North-West of Canada, in view of which it will be interesting briefly to recount the past history and present position of this extensive wheat-growing region.

Hitherto the export of wheat from Canada has been of little importance. Its total value for the year 1877 was only £1,923,000, whilst the expense of bringing land into cultivation, on account of the wooded nature of the country, prevented any large amount of immi gration, and even induced many of the Canadians themselves to leave the country and settle in the vast prairie lands of the United States. This state of things is, however, now nearly at an end. The vast fertile belt, hitherto practically shut out from Europe from want of proper means of communication, will soon, on the completion of a few miles of

railway and the organization of an improved transport by steamers, be thrown open and become the most attractive home for the surplus population of the British Isles, and the best source from which the mother country may obtain supplies of food.

The Hudson's Bay Company for over two hundred years possessed this country as a preserve for fur-bearing animals, and unhappily when the Canadians obtained possession of it they so little realized its immense value that many precious years were wasted before the construction of the 450 miles of railway necessary to connect Canada proper with these fertile lands was commenced. Had this railway been immediately begun there can be no doubt that millions of the money now flowing into the United States would have been enriching the Dominion, while hundreds of thousands of English emigrants would be filling these western lands with loyal subjects. Unhappily this chance has been lost, but as every day's delay in the completion of this line involves serious loss to the Dominion, it is to be hoped no effort will be spared to have it speedily in working order.

A striking contrast is shown in the development of railway enterprise in the United States as compared with Canada. Minnesota, which in 1862 had but 10 miles of railway, has now 3000 miles, and is laying down upwards of 300 miles annually; while Manitoba has only about 40 miles altogether, and these are controlled by Americans, who are now destroying as far as possible, by exorbitant charges, all chance of the development of the country. Thus, while the cost for carriage from Montreal to St. Paul, a distance of 1250 miles, is only 60c. per 100 lbs., the charge from St. Paul to Winnipeg, a distance of only 480 miles, is $1.50, i.e., two-and-a-half times as much for but little more than one-third the distance. Again, from Montreal to Winnipeg, via Duluth, the rate is $1.90 per 100 lbs., the charge for the portion from Montreal to Duluth, 1000 miles by water and 500 miles by rail, being 40c., while from Duluth to Winnipeg, a distance of only 480 miles, it is $1.50.

These oppressive rates are, of course, most injurious to the country. They are prohibitive to the export of grain, and make the cost of living in Manitoba compare most unfavourably with that in Minnesota and Dakota. The result is that a large portion of the immigration which should be filling Canada with prosperity is now enriching the United States, and that Canada is suffering in consequence both in material prosperity and in population. It is most unfortunate that the richest part of the Dominion has been thus left to depend for its communications on the enterprise and goodwill of a competing nation. Unhappily, politics in the Dominion often turn upon petty local questions, and thus the great interests of England's noblest colony have been neglected. It is to be hoped that now the Canadians, who cannot but look with regret upon the successful competition of the United States, and the People of Manitoba, who, in addition to imperial taxation, are com

pelled to pay heavy levies for the benefit of American railways on everything they consume, will bestir themselves to insist on greater energy in those enterprises which are necessary for the development of their country.

It may be interesting, in conclusion, to give a sketch of this great food land of the North-West, as a general impression long prevailed that it was for the most part a vast wilderness, intermixed, indeed, with some tracts of prairie lands, but possessing so ungenial a climate that emigrants would avoid it so long as land was obtainable further south. The facts are very different. The Pacific Ocean, flowing up along the western coast of North America, imparts its heat to the prevailing winds, and gives to this country, though situated in high latitudes, a comparatively warm and temperate climate, producing somewhat the same effect as the Gulf Stream does to the north-western coasts of Europe, and preserving throughout a vast district the same character of climate. Thus, the temperature at Winnipeg, during the seven warm months, averages 55°, or fully 1° warmer than the corresponding seven months at Toronto. Between this town and the Rocky Mountains "the climate," says Captain Palliser, "is somewhat similar to those parts of the Red River where it runs through Minnesota, but decidedly milder in the southern and eastern parts." A remarkable circumstance in this region is the comparative absence of snow, which seldom exceeds eighteen inches in depth, so that people ride through it during the whole winter without difficulty. Indeed, so comparatively mild is the winter on these plains that dealers in stock, who purchase horses from the Prairie Indians for the purpose of selling them in the American markets, winter them at large in droves on the prairies where there are clumps of wood, the horses finding such abundance of food under the shallow snow as to keep themselves in good condition. Cattle, however, require to be housed during a portion of the year.*

The area of this district is estimated at between 70,000 and 80,000 square miles, of which about one-third is available for immediate cultivation. A large portion is partially wooded, and abounds with lakes and rich natural pasturage, which give it the appearance of the fine park scenery of England. Its advantages to settlers as compared with those of the eastern part of Canada can hardly be over-estimated. No expenditure is needed for making roads, and whereas the settler in Canada has to spend some of the best years of his life in clearing the wood and getting out the stumps, here he can at once begin feeding cattle on the rich prairie grass, supply his family with milk, butter, and cheese from the first day of settlement, and gather without expense abundance of rich grass for the winter food of his beasts; while the second year he will reap a rich harvest of corn with little more outlay than that incurred in sowing it.

* Many of the foregoing facts are taken from a report on the Hudson's Bay and Northwest Territories by the Inspector of Crown Timber Agencies, Canada, East and West.

In many parts the scenery is strikingly beautiful. Near Fort Ellice, about 150 miles west of Winnipeg, is found a beautiful rolling country, with most excellent soil, dotted with frequent clumps of poplar, the country having the appearance of vast rich lawns fringed with woods. From the brow of the loftier hills many beautiful lakes are visible, studded with pretty islands. In the very early future the whole country will, without doubt, be filled with many prosperous settlers. The soil throughout this region is for the most part of the same nature as in Manitoba, and consists of rich alluvial deposits. Wherever subjected to the test of cultivation the result is a sufficient proof of its excellence for agricultural purposes, as was shown by the splendid fields of wheat seen last autumn standing ready for the sickle.

Further on, towards Carlton, there is an immense tract of splendid timber. It is chiefly spruce, but the trees are large and well-fitted for building purposes. Towards the west, near Edmonton, coal has been. discovered, and is believed to exist in large quantities. Last year some of it was used for steam purposes, proving of excellent quality. That obtained was bituminous, but it is said there are large deposits of anthracite also. The country to the north and all the way up to the region of the Peace River is well adapted for settlement, the land improving in quality until the Peace River is reached, beyond which, towards Portage-la-Prairie, the country is magnificent, and has been already settled to such an extent that last autumn it produced a large quantity of splendid wheat.

A recent traveller gives the following examples of the success attending immigration

"We stopped to breakfast near the house of a man who had a farm of three hundred and twenty acres, on which he had settled four or five years ago. Last year he sold cattle for which he received $2000 in cash; he was paying $300 a year for the education of his children at Winnipeg, and had a comfortable house with good garden.

"Further on we stopped to change horses at the farm of a man who had come out there this spring, taking up a homestead claim of a hundred and sixty acres (which can be done freely by any one who undertakes to settle on the land). He had been a farm-labourer in Devonshire, had worked as a labourer in Canada until he saved a few dollars, and came out where I found him last spring. He had since brought into cultivation ten acres of land; fenced off a field for a garden, in which he had a good crop of potatoes, cabbage, and onions for his winter use; had, with the help of his neighbours, built a log cabin; and had cut prairie grass enough to feed his oxen all the winter. In a few years' time he will be a prosperous man. He was happy and contented, and said that anyone could get on in this country who would work.'

"Another farmer said that ten years ago he was working on a farm in Devonshire as an ordinary labourer. Now he owns a hundred and sixty acres of land, which will give him a comfortable support for himself and family and will yearly increase in value, near the valley of the Little Saskatchewan, which, like the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, has a great breadth of splendid fertile land on either side, with ready access to water communication, which will prove invaluable as soon as the impediments to navigation in the river are removed."

From these facts it will be seen how important it is for both the

landowners and farmers of England to look carefully into their prospects, and by every available means prepare for the competition which will year by year become more intense. It is, of course, possible that a series of bad harvests in America and productive ones in Europe may delay the impending crisis, or that one of those floods or plagues of grasshoppers, with which the valley of the Red River is occasionally visited, may destroy its harvest, and for a time appear to remove the danger; but no such temporary accident can do more than delay it. With millions of acres of fertile land which can be reached from England in fourteen or fifteen days, and which are now offered to immigrants either free or at a merely nominal price, in a country where taxation is light and manure unnecessary, it is certain that before very many years are past the increased production of wheat will reduce its value, and that, instead of 52s. per quarter, which has been the average price for the last thirty years, it will probably sink to below 32s. per quarter, while the price of meat and all agricultural produce will be affected, though perhaps not to the same extent.

It will therefore be only the commonest prudence on the part of those interested to prepare for this event by relieving themselves to the utmost of all those hindrances which now so much overweight them in the contest. Let them insist upon a fairer adjustment of the rates, levied so disproportionately upon real property, and upon more economy in local expenditure: let them urge forward improved systems of agriculture, the introduction of labour-saving machines, and the improvement of the agricultural labourer himself by giving him a better wage, and something more inspiriting to look forward to than a life in a hovel and a death in a workhouse.

It is certain that land will not go out of cultivation in England, as some have foreboded. With its fertile soil, rich pasturage, dense population, and a climate which permits of probably a greater amount of energetic out-door labour than that of any other country, the cultivation of the soil can never prove unprofitable; but it must be remembered that rent is, after all, only the surplus profit, after taxation, cost of cultivation, and a satisfactory return to the cultivator for his talent and capital have been paid, and that, in the long run, it is the landowner who will have to bear the entire nct loss resulting from increased competition. That rents must fall seems therefore inevitable; but to what extent will depend upon the wisdom with which the landowners prepare to meet the threatening competition. As far as other classes of the population are concerned, the advent of cheap food cannot but be beneficial. If, as is possible, we may see bread at 4d. per quartern and meat at an average of 6d. to 8d. per lb., this will only place the workmen of England in a better position than now to compete for the custom of the world.

The consideration of this subject suggests also the importance of our politicians, the press, and all who possess influence urging upon Canada the harm she is inflicting upon herself by shutting out our manufactures

VOL. XXXVII.