Joseph Bonaparte of Naples. March 19, 1808 ....June 6, 1808 Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia....March 13, 1821 . December 2, 1848 .March 23, 1849 . June 25, 1870 February 11, 1873 .May 30, 1876 .April 27, 1909 .January 1, 1912 In English law the king cannot abdicate without the consent of Parliament. ABDOMEN, ab doh' men, in man, the cavity which contains the intestines, liver, stomach, kidneys and other organs. It is the lower part of the trunk, and is separated from the thorax, or upper cavity, by the diaphragm. The lower end of the cavity is bounded by the pelvic bones. The term abdomen is also applied collectively to all the organs contained in this cavity. The entire cavity is lined by a thin membrane called the peritoneum (meaning, in Greek, to fold about or over). The peritoneum is folded over the organs in such a way as to EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAM 1. Innominate artery 4. Right lung 8. Transverse colon 12. Head of femur 13. Thyroid gland 14. Trachea 15. Left carotid artery of 16. Arch of aorta 17. Left ventricle heart 18. Left lung 19. Cardiac orifice stomach 20. Stomach 21. Spleen 22. Descending colon 23. Ileum 24. Bladder of of In the above illustration not only is the abdominal cavity shown, with its contents, but also the organs above it, that the clear connection between the two sections may be evident. ABDUCTION, ab duc' shun, a legal term applied to the forcible removal of a woman in order to secure her fortune or her person, or to compel her to comply with certain demands. In law it is regarded as distinct from like removal of a child of either sex, which is called kidnapping. Abduction constitutes a criminal offense and is severely punished upon conviction. The penalty is most severe in England and Canada, where the laws prescribe a minimum penalty of five years' imprisonment, with a maximum sentence of penal servitude for life. In the United States the punishment varies according to the laws of the state in which the offense occurs, usually consisting of a fine and imprisonment from one to five years. ABD-UL-HAMID II, ahbd ul hah meed', (1842- ), thirty-fourth sultan of the Turkish Empire, the man whose harsh treatment of Christians called forth from Gladstone the famous epithet, "Unspeakable Turk." He was the son of Sultan Abd-ulMedjid, and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his elder brother, Sultan Murad V, in 1876. Turkey at that time was in a disturbed condition, but neither then nor later did Abdul-Hamid take any serious steps toward reform. The RussoTurkish War (which see) came as a climax to the disturbances in Turkey, and the empire would have been completely overthrown except for the interference of the European powers. Turkey, however, lost Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Roumania and Serbia, together comprising more than onehalf of its European possessions. ABD-UL-HAMID For thirty-three years one of the very few absolute monarchs in the world. For the next thirty years Sultan Abd-ulHamid was a sorry figure. His empire suffered from all sorts of internal disorders. He frequently promised reforms, usually at the demand of one or other of the European powers, but seldom fulfilled promises. Finally in 1908 he was compelled by the revolutionary party of Young Turks to grant a constitution. In 1909 he was deposed and was succeeded by his younger brother, who ascended the throne A'BEL, the second son of Adam and Eve (Gen. IV, 2). He was a shepherd and, according to the Biblical story, offered sacrifices "of the firstlings of his flock and of the fat thereof" in such a spirit that they were regarded with greater favor by the Lord than were Cain's offerings of the fruits of the ground. The latter, enraged at this, slew his brother. See CAIN, for the story of the first murder. ABELARD, PIERRE, ab' e lard, pe air', (10791142), a French philosopher and theologian, famous in his own time as one of the boldest and most original thinkers of his day, but remembered in the centuries since his own chiefly for his association with Héloïse. He was born at a village in Brittany, went to Paris as a student at the age of twenty, and there established himself as a philosophical lecturer in 1113. His reputation became very great, for he could conquer in debate the most eloquent masters; and students came to him from Rome, from England, and from Germany. Chosen by Canon Fulbert as teacher to his niece, the beautiful and accomplished Héloïse, Abelard promptly fell in love with his pupil. When the affair reached the ears of Fulbert, the couple fled. The two were married with the uncle's consent, and Abelard returned to Paris, but Héloïse denied the marriage that she might not interfere with his advancement in the Church, and the union was annulled by Fulbert. Abelard thereupon became a monk and Héloïse a nun, but the former continued his philosophical and theological lectures. The Church authorities condemned his teachings as heretical, however, and he withdrew to Nogentsur-Seine, where he built an oratory which he called the Paraclete. Until his death he kept up his correspondence with Héloïse, who survived him twenty-two years, and her Letters to him take rank in literature with the most masterly expressions of love and devotion. Their bodies were laid side by side at the Paraclete, but in 1817 they were transferred to Paris. ABERCROMBIE, JAMES (1706-1781), a soldier who commanded the British forces in America at the beginning of the French and Indian War. He attacked Ticonderoga on July 8, 1758, but was defeated with heavy loss. Six weeks later he was ordered home, and was succeeded as commander-in-chief by Baron Amherst. Later he was elected to Parliament, and strongly supported the policy of George III against the American colonies. ABERDEEN', the fourth largest city of Scotland and capital of Aberdeenshire, on the North Sea, 130 miles north of Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. It is locally known as the "Granite City" because most of its buildings are constructed of granite quarried in the vicinity. Aberdeen, like Glasgow, is famous throughout the world for the extent to which it has carried municipal ownership. All public utilities, including electric tram-car service, gas and water works, electric light, public baths, markets and cemeteries, are owned by the municipality. The profits from operation are used for improvements and for the reduction of taxation. Working people in Aberdeen are better housed than in most cities in Great Britain; several model tenements erected by the city set an example which has been followed by some private owners. Although Aberdeen was a prosperous community as early as the middle of the twelfth century, it suffered much in the wars between England and Scotland and its present prosperity dates only from 1818, when the rediscovery of methods for polishing granite laid the basis for a new industrial development. Granite in all forms, both polished and in the rough, is the chief item of export, but fish, coal and spirits are also important. The chief manufacturing industries yield woolen, cotton, jute and linen goods. Aberdeen has an excellent harbor, with immense floating docks and a breakwater, and has steamship connection with London, Hull and other ports. It is the junction point for three main lines of railway. Aberdeen is one of the most beautiful cities in Great Britain. Union Street, its principal thoroughfare, though less famous than Pall Mall, Unter den Linden or Champs Elysées, is one of the handsomest avenues in Europe. Among many notable buildings are the county and municipal halls, both of native granite, in the Scotch baronial style. Aberdeen is noted for its numerous educational institutions, among which the University of Aberdeen, with an average of 1,300 to 1,400 students, is most important. Population of the city in 1911, 163,891. ABERDEEN, JOHN CAMPBELL GORDON, Seventh Earl of (1847- ), a prominent British political leader, best known as Governor-Gen eral of Canada from 1893 to 1898. Aberdeen entered politics as a Conservative, but in 1876 he forsook the party, and was thereafter a leading Liberal and supporter of William E. Gladstone. In 1886, during the short third ministry of Gladstone, he was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and from 1905 to 1915 again held that office. Of great personal popularity, he stands among the best-liked of the men who have represented the king at Dublin and at Ottawa. While in Canada he was given honorary degrees by Queen's, McGill, Ottawa, Toronto, Laval and other universities. One of his minor titles is baronet of Nova Scotia, originally granted to one of his ancestors in 1642. ABERDEEN, S. D., the county seat of Brown County and the trade center for a large section in the northeastern part of the state. It is situated 125 miles northeast of Pierre, the capital, and 280 miles west of Minneapolis, on the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago & North Western, the Minneapolis & Saint Louis and the Great Northern railways. Aberdeen was founded in 1880, was incorporated in 1882, and was one of the first cities in the Union to adopt the commission form of government. In 1914 the population was 13,594, an increase of 2,841 since 1910. The area is little less than three square miles. Aberdeen is a commercial center and is largely interested in manufactures, flowing artesian wells supplying the power for this purpose. Boots, shoes, clothing, flour, chemicals and artesian well supplies are the principal manufactures, and there are creameries, marbleworks and several grain elevators. In addition to the public schools the city has a state normal school and a fine library. The Federal building, courthouse and city hall are the notable buildings. C. OF C. ABERDEEN, WASH., a city in Chehalis County, in the southwestern part of the state, noted for its lumber industry. It is situated on Gray's Harbor, sixteen miles from the open sea, fifty miles west of Olympia by rail, ninetysix miles southwest of Tacoma and 150 miles southwest of Seattle. The Northern Pacific and Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul railways and the Oregon Washington Railway, and Navigation Company serve the city. Aberdeen was founded in 1889. Swedes, Norwegians, Finns and Poles comprise the foreign element of the population, which in 1914 was 18,220, an increase of 4,560 since 1910. The area is eight square miles. Gray's Harbor is one of the three large harbors of the Pacific coast of the United States; the government has expended $5,000,000 here on the giant rock and concrete jetties and on widening and deepening the channel, which now permits the entrance of the world's largest freight carriers. Through this harbor 714,037,000 feet of lumber were shipped in 1915, more than from any other port in the world. Logging and lumbering were formerly the chief industries, but recently much attention has been given to agricultural and dairying development. The fishing industry is important, and extensive salmon and clam canneries are located here. Beside fifteen lumber and shingle mills, the city has three shipyards, three foundries, and furniture, woodenware and other manufactories. Aberdeen has a $75,000 city hall, a $100,000 Electric building, the $150,000 Finch building, the $125,000 Weatherway High School and a $40,000 library. The business district of the city was swept by fire in 1902 and in 1903. C. OF C. ABERRA'TION, a word which means to wander or stray from a given path, or from a right course. We apply the term to a condition known as mental aberration, meaning treacherous or defective memory, sometimes not serious, but often resulting in total loss of that faculty and even in insanity. These conditions are due to causes which only physicians can explain. In physics, the term is used to indicate the failure of rays of light to meet at a common point when they are reflected by a concave mirror or refracted by a convex lens (see MIRROR; LENS). During the passage of parallel rays through a double convex lens, the rays near the edge come to a common point, or focus, sooner than those which pass through near the center. As a result, an indistinct image is formed. In the case of the camera, telescope and other optical instruments the defect is overcome by means of a diaphragm which shuts off the edge. The diaphragm serves to make the outline of the image more distinct, but diminishes its brilliancy. In astronomy, the difference between the true and the observed position of a heavenly body is called aberration. ABILENE, ab' i leen, TEX., a growing city in Taylor County, of which it is the county seat. It is situated northwest of the geographical center of the state, on the Abilene & Southern, Texas & Pacific, and Wichita Valley railways, 160 miles southwest of Fort Worth. Between 1910 and 1914 the population increased from 9,204 to 12,806. The area is less than five square miles. Abilene is the center of a stock-raising, cotton and farming section. It has large grain elevators and manufactories of saddlery, harness and lumber, but its chief interests lie in cottongins and flour mills. Beside the public schools the city has a Baptist college and a Carnegie Library. Abilene has a Federal building and a state epileptic colony. The commission form of government is in operation. ABOLITIONISTS, ab o lish' un ists, in American history, a large number of people in the Northern United States who became influential during the first half of the nineteenth century in urging the immediate abolition of slavery. The importance of the movement dates from the beginning of the work of William Lloyd Garrison in 1829, and the formation of the American Anti-slavery Society in 1833. Division of opinion soon developed, Garrison and his followers advocating abolition even at the cost of disunion of the republic, while the more moderate party wished abolition through constitutional forms. The latter formed the Liberty party and later the Free-Soilers, and finally, in 1856, joined the Republican party. Among the prominent leaders of the radical Abolitionists were Wendell Phillips and John G. Whittier. ABOMEY, ah bo may', before the capture of the country by the French in 1892, the capital of the kingdom of Dahomey, in West Africa, near the coast of Guinea. The town is surrounded by a mud wall and a trench which encloses a large tract of land, most of which is under cultivation. An important trade in ivory, gold and palm oil is carried on. It was at one time an important slave market, which traffic the French abolished. Population, about 11,000. ABORIGINES, ab o ridg' e neez, the first or earliest known inhabitants of a section or country. The word is of Latin origin, and literally translated means from the beginning. The ancient Romans applied it to the mythical race said to have been found by Aeneas when he reached the mouth of the Tiber. Some modern scholars have suggested Aborigines was the proper name for these people, but this theory was unknown to the Romans. The aborigines throughout the world have invariably given way to newer races from other parts of the globe. The migration of peoples has made it uncertain, in some cases, who the original inhabitants were, and the term abo |