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all times too apt to be discouraged by the consciousness of their own defect, it should be the teacher's duty cheerfully to stimulate and encourage them to advancement.1

An infant school was formed in connection with the Manchester Institution for the deaf and dumb some years ago, but from the report for 1876 it appears that there were only two children under the age of seven, out of a total of 149 pupils, in the two departments. Most of the institu-watch-dial painters, wire drawers, &c. We also find artists-lithotions admit children from seven to nine years of age, and it is the opinion of teachers of experience that at that age it is most suitable to commence instruction. Still, before they are eligible for an institution of the deaf and dumb, much may and ought to be done by the parents for their improvement.

The first and primary aim of the teacher is to get at the minds of the pupils, and for this end it is of immense advantage that they should be brought up together, so that The they may acquire and maintain the language of signs. acquisition enables them to convey to one another much and varied information, which proves of great service in the hands of the teacher in the class-room; and further, through this intercommunion the influence of example operates with due force in stimulating them to intellectual exertions. The length of time required at school for the education of the deaf and dumb must be determined by the capacities of the pupils, and perhaps even more by their position in life. Of course, they require a much longer time than hearing children to compensate for their deprivation. Still those who have to begin to earn their daily bread by the labour of their hands at about the age of fourteen (if of good capacity) leave the school with a store of varied and useful knowledge. They are able to understand directions given to them, to hold intercourse with others, to express their opinions on ordinary affairs-in short, they are raised from a wretched and forlorn condition to that of intelligent and moral beings, and as such their future progress will be proportional to their own diligence, and will be impeded by no obstacles except those which their own exertions are now competent to remove.

Occupations.-Most of the deaf and dumb soon after leaving school are put to some trade. They will be found to be engaged in all kinds of employment except those to which hearing and speech are indispensable. The deprivation of hearing is no barrier to learning most trades, and the deaf and dumb acquire them with the same facility and show the same expertness as others. As a rule, they are very steady, and apply themselves with assiduity to their work; for while the attention of those who can hear is often distracted in the workshop, they steadily keep to their task, as they well know that talking implies for them cessation from labour. There is at times a little difficulty to get employers for them, as they require more attention

to be initiated into their trades.

The following extract from an interesting work on the deaf and dumb by the Rev. S. Smith enumerates many of the trades in which they are engaged :

"Deaf and dumb soldiers and policemen are not existent; there is however a rifle volunteer, whose father being an old soldier drilled him well so that he is now able to join in general practice. Amongst the males, besides various labouring employments, the trades of shoemaking and tailoring predominate, but beyond these

1 In one school only, namely, Donaldson's Hospital in Edinburgh, are the deaf and dumb brought up together with hearing children, but even there it has never been thought practicable to instruct them in the same class-room. The benefit derived by the deaf and dumb from such a system is very slight in an educational point of view, but socially it is of great advantage, as it draws them out of that isolation to which they are naturally so prone, and fits them to hold free and ready intercourse with strangers in after life; and besides, the association largely tends to spread the mode of deaf-mute communication throughout the country, as the hearing children learn to communicate freely with them.

there is a diversity of occupation. We have bakers, blacksmiths,
makers, cabinetmakers, carpenters, carvers on wood and stone,
bookbinders, brassworkers, bricklayers, brickmakers, brush-
cigar-makers, compositors, coopers, cork-cutters, cutlers, en-
gravers on wood and metals, French polishers, gardeners, gilders,
glass writers and stainers, harness makers, saddlers, hatters,
japanners, jewellers, law writers, optical and philosophical
instrument makers, pattern designers, print and map colourers,
printers both lithographic and letterpress, turners, typefounders,
graphic, photographic, heraldic-and some in the highest branches
both in oil and water colours; also a sculptor of great ability who
produced a beautiful composition in competition for the Wellington
memorial prize, who also once stood second for a gold medal, and
who has most satisfactorily executed statuettes of Wellington, Peel,
Raglan, Havelock, &c. There are, besides, two heraldic painters,
who have studios of their own, and are amongst the best of their art
in London, with others who are rising in great proficiency. Two of
the artists in oil, although but young and at present students, have
executed pictures which have been accepted by the British Insti-
tution, the Suffolk Academy, and in one instance by the Royal
Academy. In more intellectual occupations we find several gentle.
men in the civil service, respecting one of whom, who has gained a
superior position in his office, it has been remarked to us by some
whose duties bring them into contact with him, that notwith-
standing his affliction they can do business better with him than
There is a young gentleman
any other clerk in the establishment.
making himself noted as an entomologist; some are teachers of the
deaf and dumb, occasionally even principals of institutions; and the
highest instance we know of is a barrister, not a pleader of course,
but who is eminent as a conveyancer. In the employment of
females there is not so much variety; some are engaged in domestic
work, others are artificial florists, bookfolders and sewers, brush-
drawers, cigar makers, corset makers, dress and mantle makers,
fringe and tassel makers, laundresses, muslin workers, milliners,
We also
sewing machinists, straw bonnet makers, tailoresses, &c.
know one who is a compositor, another a lady's maid, and a third
who is employed in a telegraph office."

From this it will be seen that to the educated deaf mute nearly all trades are open, and the reports from their masters to the several institutions are generally most favourable.

The census returns for 1871 give the following table of occupations of deaf and dumb in England and Wales and Scotland :—

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Institutions.-Most of the institutions for the deaf and dumb in England have originated in the benevolent interest of a few individuals of the localities in which

they are established. They are supported by public annual subscriptions, donations, legacies, and fees of pupils for board and education. The principals are held responsible for the educational department and for internal management, while the affairs of the institutions are directed by committees selected from the subscribers. Trades are taught to the boys in some of the schools, while all the pupils have to do some industrial work, and the girls are taught household work, sewing, and knitting. The children are admitted either gratuitously or by payment of fees, varying in amount in the several institutions, some of which grant apprentice fees and otherwise assist the children on leaving school.

The London Asylum was the first public school in England for the gratuitous education of the indigent deaf and dumb. It was projected by the Rev. J. Townsend and On the Rev. H. Mason, rector of Bermondsey, London. 14th November 1792 the school was opened with four pupils

Among those who passed the recent Cambridge Local Examinations with honours in classics and mathematics was a deaf-mute lad under 16 years of age, named Farrar.

with Dr Watson as principal. Its existence becoming more | contributed liberally. The sum of $12,000 was raised in generally known, the number of candidates for admission the course of a few months, $5600 having been obtained in increased so greatly beyond the means of accommodation Massachusetts, above $2000 of which was collected in the that a larger and more commodious building was found to city of Boston. After this school had been founded, the be absolutely necessary. An appeal for funds to erect such need of other schools was at once felt; and the New York a building was made and liberally responded to, and an Institution was opened in 1818, that in Pennsylvania in eligible plot of ground was taken in the Old Kent 1822, the one in Kentucky in 1823, Ohio school in 1829; Road, London; and on the 11th of July 1807 the late and others followed till the number reached to 35, the last of duke of Gloucester laid the foundation stone of the new which, a day school, was opened at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1871. building. Since its foundation 4094 children have been In America, and in almost every country in Europe except admitted. In 1862 a branch was started at Margate, and Great Britain and Ireland, the state successfully undertakes after twelve years' experience the committee of management the instruction of the deaf and dumb. All the institutions were influenced to erect a permanent building for the are munificently supported by large annual appropriations accommodation of 150 children. It was formally opened by from the local legislatures, the state regarding it as a the Prince of Wales on the 19th of July 1876, with Mr R. primary duty that the deaf and dumb, the blind, &c., shall Elliott as head master. The asylum, with the branch at not be excluded from those educational privileges accorded Margate, is supported by voluntary contributions, legacies, to every member of the community. donations, and dividends from stock. The average income is about £12,000 a year. There are at present 317 pupils in attendance, who come from all parts of the kingdom. The ages of admission are 8 to 11, and the children are elected by votes of the subscribers; and, with a view to assist that class of the deaf and dumb whose friends are able to pay for their board, the committee receive children upon the payment of £25 per annum. Those children whose parents or guardians are unable to put them to some useful trade on leaving school are apprenticed by the charity. Since 1811 the number of children apprenticed has been 1515, and the total amount of premium £14,632, 16s. Various institutions for similar objects have been formed on the Continent. The asylum for the deaf and dumb at Paris, which was formerly under the management of the Abbé Sicard, has for its object not only to enable the pupils to communicate their ideas and to form the understanding, but also to qualify them to earn their subsistence. On quitting the asylum they are all capable of following a trade or profession. Their apprenticeship begins on their first entering the institution, and is terminated when their education is finished.

Institutions, formed more or less upon the model of that at Paris, have been established in Portugal, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Baden, Würtemberg, Bavaria, Austria, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Hanover, Brunswick, the Free Towns of Germany, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland, the United States of America, Canada, Mexico, and Bengal, to say nothing of those in Great Britain and France. The American annals of 1873 give us 35 American institutions for the education of the deaf and dumb, containing a total of 4253 pupils-namely, 2393 males and 1860 females, 378 of whom are semi-mutes. The latter number includes all the deaf who have acquired language through the ear. In Canada there are 4 institutions with 292 pupils, of whom 220 are males and 72 females. Out of this number 17 are semi-mutes. The first institution for the education of deaf mutes in America was opened on the 15th April 1817. The circumstances which led to its

establishment are as follows:

A deaf-mute little girl in the family of Dr Cogswell, an eminent physician in Hartford city, attracting some attention, it was soon afterwards found that there were other deaf mutes in the country It was decided to send some one abroad to acquire the art of educating them; and to establish a school for this purpose funds were raised, and the Rev. F. H. Gallaudet, D.D.. was selected for this work. He left the United States, May 15, 1816, to execute this mission intrusted to him. The Institution was incorporated by the Connecticut Legislature in May 1816, under the name of the Connecticut Asylum for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb.

Mr Gallaudet returned to America in August 22 of the same year, accompanied by Mr L. Clerc, a deaf-mute pupil of the Abbé Sicard. They immediately commenced collecting funds to start the school The enterprize excited general interest, and individuals and churches

In a spirit of enlightened liberality, highly creditable to the United States, the Government of that country adopts the deaf and dumb as "wards of the commonwealth," and in the most generous manner acquits itself of its obligation towards them. The following facts have been taken from the official reports of some American institutions :

The number of pupils in the Indiana Institution in the year 1870 was 186; for these the State had granted a sum of 50,000 dollars, which is equal to £10,400, or £56 per annum for each pupil. A given for the erection of some additional buildings which the still further sum of 42,500 dollars, or nearly £9,000 sterling, was requirements of the Institution demanded. Every other State in the Union provides for its deaf-mute ward with similar generosity.

It is to be hoped that the day is not far distant when the deaf and dumb in Great Britain and Ireland may be congratulated on the inauguration by the legislature of a humane and beneficent policy on their behalf.

In many of the large towns where institutions are established, associations in aid of the deaf and dumb are springing up and carrying on most important and valuable work. Their first business is to seek out neglected children and to get them placed in some special school. Situations are procured for those on leaving school whose parents are unable to do anything for them, and the education commenced at the institutions is carried on by means of lectures; and as little benefit is to be got by attending the ordinary church services, meetings are held on Sundays, when suitable religious exercises are performed, portions of Scripture explained, and an address given by spelling with the assistance of such signs as may be found necessary. The missionaries connected with these associations call upon them at their homes, in this way making themselves familiar with their condition; the sick are visited and receive consolation; and the distressed, infirm, and aged are assisted. These associations, while rendering assistance to the deserving, endeavour to make them help themselves, and help only at the point where otherwise they would be lost; and it has been made a rule that when one loses his place through any fault of his own, he cannot claim the

There

assistance of the association to find another for him.
seem to be few societies which have a greater claim on
public sympathy; and that it deserves recognition is testified
by the great good it is doing to this neglected and isolated
class of persons, many of whom would otherwise have pro-
bably acquired habits of idleness and intemperance.

In the English census returns for 1871 we find that only 529 deaf mutes, out of a total of 11,518, of whom 51 were imbeciles and 26 blind as well as deaf and dumb, were inmates of workhouses in England and Wales. That small proportion affords evidence of the fact that by means of education the deaf and dumb may be transferred from the dependent and burdensome class into the self-supporting class of the community.

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Dumb.

Total Population.

Proportion

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The above, compared with the returns of the census of 1861, with an increase of population of 2 millions during that decennial period, will show an absolute decrease of 1075 deaf mutes, viz., 718 persons in England and Wales, 248 in Scotland, 99 in Ireland, and 10 in the islands of the British seas.

Census, 1861.

Sweden

144,638 31,619,681

1 in 1879

Denmark.

1834

630

1,225,807

1 in 1942

Norway

1835

1,091

1,065,825

1 in 977

1 in 1644

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1 in 1523

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1 in 1649 1 in 1432

These figures afford an indication that causes are at work which are diminishing the extent of deaf-muteism in the country; such as dirent sanitary improvements, general attention to the laws of health, and more skilful treatment of the diseases which result in deafress. Of the 11,518 deaf mutes in England and Wales in 1871 (including those described as dumb) 6262 are males and 5256 te females. In Scotland, out of the 2087 deaf mutes, 1133 are males and 954 females, of whom 1016 were ascertained to have been so from birth, while 1071 became so in after life from various cau-es. The number of deaf and dumb persons in Ireland is 5554, viz., in Leinster, 1818; Munster, 1590; Connaught,

882; and Ulster, 1764.

The instances of persons in the melancholy condition of being deaf and dumb and blind are more numerous than might be supposed; for the congenitally deaf are in a measure predisposed to the organic defect which results in blindness. No less than 111 persons were returned as deaf and dumb and blind; of these 20 were in special asylums and 26 in workhouses. In 1861 only 30 persons were described as blind and deaf and dumb. As dumbness can only co-exist with deafness from birth or from early life, the number of deaf and dumb, unlike that of the blind, does not increase with age, but is highest immediately after the age when the epidemic diseases of children have been passed through. Talde II. shows concisely the locality, the date of establishment. and approximately the number of pupils in each of the institutions in Great Britain and Ireland.

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DEAFNESS. See EAR.

DEAK, FRANZ (1803-1876), an Hungarian statesman, was born on October 17, 1803, at Kehida, in the comitat of Szalad. He sprang from an old noble family, of which he was the last descendant. Having studied law at the academy of Raab, he practised as an advocate in Szalad, and soon became a prominent figure at the meetings of the comitat. He represented Szalad in the Diet which met at Presburg in 1832 and lasted till 1836. By his earnestness and practical sagacity he made so deep an impression that he was in a short time recognized as leader of the opposition. The object of his policy was, on the one hand, to resist the encroachments of the central Government at Vienna on the rights of his country, and, on the other, to remove abuses which then made Hungary one of the most backward nations in Europe. He again sat for Szalad in the Dict of 1839-40, and by skilful management effected a temporary reconciliation between the Imperial Government and the Reform party, of which he was the head. He gave deep offence, however, by the vigour with which he denounced the exemption of Hungarian nobles from taxation, as well as other injurious survivals of the Middle Ages; and when elected in 1843 he received such definite instructions from the constituency to vote in a reactionary sense that he declined to accept his seat. At a second election the Liberals exerted themselves so energetically that he was again appointed; but, on the ground that violence had been used in connection with his candidature, he once more refused to enter the Diet. For some years he lived as a private citizen; but he was everywhere regarded as the most influential Hungarian politician, and his party took no important step without consulting him. A project for a penal code which he drew up about this time was admitted in Germany, France, and England to be one of the most enlightened ever conceived. The excitement of 1843 caused the first symptoms of the disease of the heart of which he ultimately died; and during the rest of his life he always suffered more or less from ill health. On this account he could not enter the Diet of 1847; but next year, when revolutionary forces threatened to break up the empire, he was persuaded to take a seat vacated for him by one of the members for Szalad.

The emperor, alarmed by the dangers which surrounded him on every side, conceded in a number of measures, afterwards known as "the laws of 1848," every important demand Deák had ever made. The first independent Hungarian Cabinet, with Count Batthyanyi as president, was formed, and the ministry of justice was intrusted to Deák. In this office, during the few months he held it, he worked indefatigably; and he intended completely to reorganize legal administration. His plans, however, were

disturbed by the agitation of which Kossuth was the centre, and which aimed at changes of a more extreme character thar he approved. He desired to maintain the relations of Austria and Hungary, and exercised his whole influence in favour of a good understanding between the two countries. Everts decided against him, for Kossuth rose to power and began the war in the course of which the Hapsburg dynasty was formally deposed. Deák resigned his portfolio, and appeared in connection with the subsequent struggle only as one of the deputation which, on the approach of the Austrian army to Buda-Pesth, went to negotiate with Prince Windischgrätz. When the war was over, Deák was offered the post of Judex Curiæ; but he insisted that the laws of 1848 were still in force, and would have nothing to do with any system of government in which they were ignored. On the other hand, he discountenanced violent proposals, urging that the legal rights of the land could be secured only by legal meaus

Hungary suffered deeply from the reaction which followed the revolutionary period, and it was clear that she only awaited a favourable opportunity to throw off the imperial yoke. The disasters sustained by Austria in the Italian war of 1859 suggested to the emperor the necessity of a change of policy; and the result was that in 1861 the Diet again met. This time Deák appeared as member for Pesth, which henceforth returned him at every election till his death. The Moderate party rallied round him, and after much discussion the address to the emperor drawn up by him was adopted. In this the Diet took its stand on the laws of 1848, and demanded the appointment of a Hungarian ministry; but at Vienna they were not prepared to give way so far. The imperial rescript was very hostile in tone, and the Diet was speedily dissolved. In 1865 fresh negotiations were begun, and they were powerfully promoted by a series of letters in the Pesti Napló, setting forth Deák's ideas as to the proper bases of reconciliation. Towards the end of 1865 the Diet was opened by the emperor in person. About six months afterwards it was hastily closed because of the approaching war between Austria and Prussia; but it reassembled on November 19, 1866, when Austria had been utterly defeated and seemed on the brink of ruin. The Radical party wished to take advantage of the general confusion by exacting terms to which the Austrian Government would never before have consented; but Deák maintained his former position, desiring no more than that the system which he considered the only legal one should been forced. His influence over the Diet and the nation prevailed; and he had the satisfaction of seeing Count Andrassy appointed president of an Hungarian cabinet and the emperor and empress crowned as king and queen of Hungary. The establishment of the dual system, which enabled the Austro-Hungarian monarchy to enter upon a new career after terrible humiliations and losses, was due to the efforts of Deák more than to any other cause, and the fact was gratefully acknowledged both by the mass of his countrymen and by the emperor.

For some years the Deák party continued the most powerful in the Diet; but the state of his health rendered it impossible for him to do much more than deliver an occasional speech on subjects of unusual interest. His last speech, in the summer of 1873, was on the relations of church and state; and he proclaimed himself in favour of the American system-"a free church in a free state." Before his death his party lost its hold over the nation; and in 1875 Tisza, a man of more advanced opinions, was called to the head of the Government. Deák died on January 29, 1876, at Buda-Pesth, after a long and painful illness. His death was regarded as a national calamity, and he was buried at the cost of the state amid manifestations of universal grief.

Hungary has produced no other statesman of equal distinction. He approached closely to the type which is supposed to be peculiarly English, holding fast vital principles, but always ready to accede to a compromise on matters of secondary moment. Intensely opposed to revolution, he was absolutely fearless when sure that he was standing on lawful ground, and pursued the political ideal he had formed with a persistence which has been rarely equalled. In youth his style as an orator was passionate and florid; but he ultimately became calm and deliberate, carrying conviction by command of facts, logical arrangement of ideas, and lucid statement. At all periods of his career he conveyed the impression of absolute sincerity and devotion to high and unselfish aims. He was of a genial disposition, remarkably fond of children, and with a gift of ready humour which made him as great a favourite in society as in parliament. (J. SI.)

DEAL, a municipal and parliamentary borough and market town of Eng.and, in the county of Kent, eight miles N.N.E. of Dover and five miles by rail S.S.E. of Sandwich. It consists of three divisions:-Lower Deal, which is the most important, on the coast; Middle Deal; and, about a mile inland, Upper Deal. Though largely frequented as a sea-bathing place, the town derives its im portance mainly from its vicinity to the Downs, a fine anchorage about eight miles long and six miles wide between the shore and the Goodwin Sands, in which large fleets of wind-bound vessels may lie in safety. The trade consequently consists largely in the supply of provisions and naval stores; though boat-building and a few other indus tries are carried on., The Deal pilots, limited by statute to the number of 56, are famous for their skill and daring. Among the public buildings in the town the most remarkable are St Leonard's Church in Upper Deal, which dates from the Norntan period; the Baptist chapel in Lower Deal, founded by Captain Taverner, governor of Deal Castle, in 1663; the Deal and Walmer Institute, established in 1864; the military and naval hospital; and the barracks, which date from 1795. The site of the old navy yard is now occupied by villas; and the esplanade has been improved by the construction of a promenade pier. At the south end of the town is Deal Castle, erected by Henry VIIL; and about a mile to the east is Sandoun Castle, which owes its origin to the same monarch, and is of interest as the prison in which Colonel Hutchinson died in 1664. Walmer Castle, the official residence of the warden of the CinquePorts, is about a mile to the south. It has become intimately associated with the memory of the duke of Wellington, who died within its walls in 1852. Deal was possibly the site of a Roman station, but it has not received any definite identification. In the 13th century it was regarded as a subordinate member of the Cinque-Port guild; but even as late as the time of Henry VIII. it was still but a small village. Perkin Warbeck landed at this point in 1495. The castle was vainly besieged by the royalists in 1648; and in 1652 the Downs were the scene of Blake's victory over Van Tromp. Mrs Elizabeth Carter was a native of Deal. The population of the borough, which unites with Sandwich and Walmer in sending one member to Parlia ment, was, in 1871, 8009. The area is 1124 acres.

DEAN, Latin decanus, is derived from the Greek Séka, ten; and whether the term was first used among the secular clergy to signify the priest who had a charge of inspection and superintendence over ten parishes, or among the regular clergy to signify the monk who in a monastery had authority over ten other monks, appears doubtful. "Decurius " may be found in early writers used to signify the same thing as " decanus," which shows that the word and the idea signified by it were originally borrowed from the old Roman military systein.

ad decanatus dignitatem." The duties of the dean in a Roman Catholic cathedral are to preside over the chapter, to declare the decisions to which the chapter may have in its debates arrived by plurality of voices, to exercise inspection over the choir, over the conduct of the capitular body, and over the discipline and regulations of the church; and to celebrate divine service on occasion of the greater festivals of the church in the absence, or inability, of the bishop. With the exception of the last clause the same statement may be made as to the duties and functions of the deans of our cathedral churches.

Deans had also a place in the judicial system of the Lombard kings in the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries. But the office indicated by that term, so used, seems to have been a very subordinate one; and the name was in all probability adopted with immediate reference to the etymological meaning of the word,—a person having authority over ten (in this case apparently) families. Muratori, in his Italian Antiquities, speaks of the resemblance between the saltarii or sylvani and the decani, and shows that the former had authority in the rural districts, and the latter in towns, or at least in places where the population was sufficiently close for them to have authority over ten families. Nevertheless, a document cited by Muratori from the archives of the canons of Modena, and dated in the year 813, recites the names of several "deaneries" (decania), and thus shows that the authority of the dean extended over a certain circumscription of territory.

The earliest mention which occurs of an "archipresbyter" | chapter-" Unus de gremio tantum potest eligi et promoveri seems to be in the 4th epistle of St Jerome to Rusticus, in which he says that a cathedral church should possess one bishop, one archipresbyter, and one archdeacon. Liberatus also (Breviar. c. xiv.) speaks of the office of archipresbyter in a manner which, as Bingham says, enables one to understand what the nature of his duties and position was. And he thinks that those are right who hold that the archipresbyters were the same as the deans of our cathedral churches. Stillingfleet (Irenic. part ii. c. 7) says of the archipresbyters that "the memory of them is preserved still in cathedral churches, in the chapters there, where the dean was nothing else but the archipresbyter; and both dean and prebendaries were to be assistant to the bishop in the regulating the church affairs belonging to the city, while the churches were contained therein." Bingham, however, following Liberatus, describes the office of the archipresbyter to have been next to that of the bishop, the head of the presbyteral college, and the functions to have consisted in administering all matters pertaining to the church in the absence of the bishop. But this does not describe accurately the office of dean in an English cathedral church. The dean is indeed second to the bishop in rank and dignity, and he is the head of the presbyteral college or chapter; but his functions in no wise consist in administering any affairs in the absence of the bishop. There may be some matters connected with the ordering of the internal arrangements of our cathedral churches, respecting which it may be considered a doubtful point whether the authority of the bishop or that of the dean is supreme. But the consideration of any such question leads at once to the due theoretical distinction between the two. With regard to matters spiritual, properly and strictly so called, the bishop is supreme in the cathedral as far as-and no farther than he is supreme in his diocese generally. With regard to matters material and temporal, as concerning the fabric of the cathedral, the arrangement and conduct of the services, and the management of the property of the chapter, &c., the dean (not excluding the due authority of the other members of the chapter, but speaking with reference to the bishop) is supreme. And the cases in which a doubt might arise on the point are those in which the material arrangements of the fabric or of the services may be thought to involve doctrinal considerations.

The Roman Catholic writers on the subject say that there are two sorts of deans in the church-the deans of cathedral churches, and the rural deans-as has continued to be the case in the English Church. And the probability would seem to be that the former were the successors and representatives of the monastic decurions, the latter of the inspectors of ". ten parishes in the primitive secular

church. It is thought by some that the rural dean is the lineal successor of the chorepiscopus, who in the early church was the assistant of the bishop, discharging most, if not all, episcopal functions in the rural districts of the diocese. But upon the whole the probability is otherwise. Beveridge, Cave, Bingham, and Basnage all hold that the chorepiscopi were true bishops, though Romanist theologians for the most part have maintained that they were simple priests. But if the chorepiscopus has any representative in the church of the present day, it seems more likely that the archdeacon is such rather than the dean

The ordinary use of the term dean, as regards secular bodies of persons, would lead to the belief that the oldest member of a chapter had, as a matter of right, or at least of usage, become the dean thereof. But Bingham (lib. ii. ch. 18) very conclusively shows that such was at no time the case; as is also further indicated by the maxim to the effect that the dean must be selected from the body of the

In the case of the "dean of the sacred college," the connection between the application of the term and the etymology of it is not so evident as in the foregoing instances of its use; nor is it by any means clear how and when the idea of seniority was first attached to the word. This office is held by the oldest cardinali.e., he who has been longest in the enjoyment of the purple, not he who is oldest in years-who is usually, but not necessarily or always, the bishop of Ostia and Velletri. Perhaps the use of the word "dean," as signifying simply the eldest member of any corporation or body of men, may have been first adopted from its application to that high dignitary. The dean of the sacred college is in the ecclesiastical hierarchy second to the Pope alone. His privileges and special functions are very many; a compendious account of the principal of them may found in the work of Moroni, vol. xix. p. 168.

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There are four sorts of deans of whom the law of England takes notice. 1. The dean and chapter are a council subordinate to the bishop, assistant to him in matters spiritual relating to religion, and in matters temporal relating to the temporalities of the bishopric. The dean and chapter are a corporation, and the dean himself is a corporation sole. Deans are said to be either of the old or of the new foundation-the latter being those created and regulated after the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII The deans of the old foundation before 3 and 4 Vict. c. 113 were elected by the chapter on the king's congé d'élire; and the deans of the new foundation (and, since the Act, of the old foundation also) are appointed by the king's letters patent. It was at one time held that a layman might be dean; but by 13 and 14 Charles II. c. 4, priest's orders are a necessary qualification. Deaneries are sinecures in the old sense, i.e., they are without cure of souls. The chapter formerly consisted of canons and prebendaries, the dean being the head and an integral part of the corporation. By 3 and 4 Vict. c. 113, it is enacted that "all the members of the chapter except the dean, in every collegiate and cathedral church in England, and in the cathedral churches of St David and Llandaff, shall be styled canons." By the same Act the dean is required to

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