Matthew, confirmed by James I.; the third by Nathaniel Lord Crew, 1684 (afterwards redelivered to the bishop, the corporation acting under the second charter), and the fourth by John Egerton, 1780.

Durham can scarcely be said to have any staple trade or manufacture, though it possesses one carpet factory and one large mill for the preparation of "Durham mustard." It is now a very different place, socially, from what it was when there were twelve prebendaries with much larger incomes than the six canons now have, and when "The College" was a noted centre for dignified and liberal hospitality. At that time, canonical residence was kept with much more strictness than it is at present, and the prebendary in residence entertained guests of all classes. Noblemen and gentlemen then resided in houses in Framwellgate and Elvet, now let out into tenements and serving as the squalid homes of the very poorest class. The Bailey and Old Elvet are, however, still chiefly occupied by the upper classes, and Western Hill is a new and rapidly increasing suburb. The Palace Green is an open space having the cathedral on the south side, the castle, now University College, on the north, the Exchequer Buildings, now the university library, together with Bishop Cosin's library, on the west, and the museum, alms-houses, and other offices on the east. The museum contains an almost complete collection of British birds. Six out of the seven parish churches are ancient, and possess features of interest. The high banks of the river on which the cathedral and castle stand are richly wooded, and traversed in all directions by well-kept paths, which afford ever-changing views of wood, water, rocks, bridges, the cathedral, the castle, picturesque old houses, and terraced gardens.

In 1861 the municipal borough of Durham had within its area of 880 acres 2007 inhabited houses, with a population of 14,088. In 1871, the number of inhabited houses was 2349, and the population comprised 6956 males and 7450 females, or 14,406 in all. The parliamentary borough, which with an area of 967 acres had 14,833 inhabitants in 1871, returns two members to Parliament. (J. T. F.) DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, FIRST EARL OF (1792-1840), born at Lambton Castle, Durham, on the 12th April 1792, was the eldest son of William Henry Lambton, M.P. for the city of Durham. It is noteworthy that the family to which he belonged had held the Lambton estate in uninterrupted male succession from the 12th century. Educated at Eton, he held for a short time a commission in a regiment of hussars. In 1813, soon after attaining his majority, he was returned to Parliament as representative of his native county. He was an advanced Liberal from the beginning to the end of his political career, and distinguished himself by his uncompromising opposition to the reactionary measures of the Tory Government. His political position was strengthened by his marriage in 1816 to the eldest daughter of Earl Grey. In 1819 he championed the rights of the people by his denunciation, in the House of Commons and at numerous public meetings, of the coercive measures proposed by the Government against the Chartists. In April 1821 he proposed in the House a scheme of parliamentary reform which was in some points, notably in regard to the redistribution of seats, more thoroughgoing than that which was carried eleven years later. The delicate state of his health compelled him in 1826 to proceed to Naples, where he resided for about a year. He was a prominent supporter of the Canning administration of 1827, and of that of Lord Goderich by which it was succeeded. When the latter fell to pieces owing to its inherent weakness in January 1828, Lambton's services were acknowledged by his elevation to the peerage as Baron Durham. On the accession of Lord Grey to power in 1830 Lord Durham obtained the

office of lord privy seal. He was one of a Cabinet com mittee of four who were intrusted with the preparation of the Reform Bill, the others being Sir James Graham, Lord John Russell, and Lord Duncannon. It was understood at the time that his influence was exerted to make the measure as liberal as possible, and in particular that he wished to introduce the ballot as one of its provisions. In the debates on the bill in the Lords he did not take the leading part that might naturally have been expected from the only peer who had been on the Cabinet committee for its preparation. This was owing partly to his own indifferent health and partly to grief at the death of his eldest son, the Master Lambton of one of Lawrence's most admired portraits. Continued ill-health led him to resign office in March 1833, when he was raised to the dignity of Viscount Lambton and earl of Durham. In the summer of the same year, however, he was able to undertake a special embassy to the court of St Petersburg, the chief object of which was to secure lenient treatment for the insurgent Poles. In this he was unsuccessful. When the party that had carried reform began to be divided, Lord Durham was generally regarded as a likely leader of the more advanced section, and a strongly radical speech which he delivered at the celebrated Grey banquet at Edinburgh in 1834 helped to strengthen his claims to the position. It took the form of a reply to a previous speech of Lord Brougham, whose enmity Lord Durham thus provoked. In 1837 he accepted the post of ambassador at St Petersburg, which he occupied for about a year. Meanwhile a very serious insurrection had broken out in Canada, and early in 1838 the Government found it necessary to suspend the colonial constitution and send out a new governor with special powers. Lord Durham was selected to undertake the difficult task, for which his extensive experience and his well-known advanced liberalism were supposed specially to qualify him. Somewhat hasty and irascible in his temperament, he unfortunately adopted measures which were beyond the powers conferred upon him by the special Act of Parliament under which he had been appointed. These measures were disapproved of by a vote of the House of Lords on the motion of Lord Brougham, who imported the bitterness of his earlier quarrel with Lord Durham into the debate, and the Government were compelled to disallow the ordinances in which they were embodied. Lord Durham was so deeply incensed at this that he took the extraordinary step of returning home without waiting for his recall, and the Government marked its disapproval of his conduct by directing that he should not receive the customary salute on landing in England. He defended his plan of administration in an able and elaborate report addressed to the queen, and his policy was practically justified by being adopted by his successor. He had returned to England in shattered health, and he died at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, on the 28th July 1840.

DURIAN (Malay, duri, a thorn), the fruit of Durio zibethinus, a tree of the natural order Sterculiacea, which attains a height of 70 or 80 feet, has oblong, tapering leaves, rounded at the base, and yellowish-green flowers, and bears a general resemblance to the elm. The durio is cultivated in Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and the Moluccas, and northwards as far as Mindanao in the Philippines; also in the Malay Peninsula, in Tenasserim, on the Bay of Bengal, to 14° N. lat., and in Siam to the 13th and 14th parallels. The fruit is spherical and 6 to 8 inches in diameter, approaching the size of a large cocoa-nut; it has a hard external husk or shell, and is completely armed with strong pyramidal tubercles, meeting one another at the base, and terminating in sharp thorny points; these sometimes inflict severe injuries on persons upon whom the fruit may chance to fall when ripe. On dividing the fruit at the

sutures of the carpels, where the spines arch a little, it is found to contain five oval cells, each filled with a creamcoloured, glutinous, smooth pulp, in which are imbedded from one to five seeds about the size of chestnuts. The pulp and the seeds, which latter are eaten roasted, are the edible parts of the fruit. With regard to the taste of the pulp Mr Wallace remarks, "A rich butter-like custard, highly flavoured with almonds, gives the best idea of it, but intermingled with it come wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, brown sherry, and other incongruities; . it is neither acid, nor sweet, nor juicy, yet one feels the want of none of these qualities, for it is perfect as it is." The fruit, especially when not fresh from the tree, has, notwithstanding, a most offensive smell, which has been compared to that of rotten onions or of putrid animal matter. The Dyaks of the Sarawak river in Borneo esteem the durian above all other fruit, eat it unripe both cooked and raw, and salt the pulp for use as a relish with rice.

See Linschoten, Discours of Voyages, bk. i., chap. 57, p. 102, fol. Lond. 1598; Bickmore, Travels in the East Indian Archipelago, p. 91, 1868; Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, 3rd. ed. 1872. DÜRKHEIM, a town in the Palatinate of the Rhine, near the foot of the Hardt Mountain, and at the entrance of the valley of the Isenach, 15 miles north-west of Spire, on the railway between Monsheim and Neustadt. Besides being the seat of various administrative offices, it possesses three churches and a synagogue, a town-hall occupying the site of the castle of the princes of Leiningen-Hartenburg, an antiquarian and a scientific society, a public library, and a high school. It is well known as a resort for invalids, who may either indulge in the grape-cure or have recourse to the salt-springs of Philippshall in the neighbourhood, which not only supply the bathing establishment, but produce annually about 8000 cwt. of marketable salt. The inhabitants have a good trade in wine, and manufacture oil, tobacco, glass, and paper.

As a dependency of the Benedictine abbey of Limburg, which which was built and endowed by Conrad II., Dürkheim or Thurnigheim came into the possession of the counts of Leiningen, who in the 18th century made it the seat of a fortress, and in the 14th inclosed it with wall and ditch. In the three following centuries it had its full share of the military vicissitudes of the Palatinate; but it was rebuilt after the French invasion of 1689, and greatly fostered by its counts in the beginning of next century. In 1794 its new castle was sacked by the French, and in 1849 it was the scene of a contest between the Prussians and the insurrectionists. The ruins of the abbey of Limburg are still to be seen about a mile S.W. of the town; and in the neighbourhood rises the Kastanienberg, with the ancient rude stone fortification of the Heidenmauer or Heathen's Wall. Population in 1871, 5572.

DURLACH, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of Carlsruhe, 2 miles by rail from the city of that name, with which it is connected by a canal and an avenue of poplars. It lies on the left bank of the Pfinz, at the foot of the vineyardcovered Thurmberg, which is crowned by a watch-tower; and it possesses a castle erected in 1565 and now used as barracks, an ancient Rathhaus, a church with an excellent organ, an upper Bürgerschule, an orphan asylum, and in the market-place a statue of the margrave Charles II. Its inLabitants manufacture tobacco, beer, vinegar, and chicory, and engage in agriculture and gardening. A chalybeate spring is utilized at the bathing establishment of Amalienbad.

Durlach was bestowed by the emperor Frederick on Hermann V. of Zähringen as an allodial possession, but afterwards came into the hands of Rudolf of Hapsburg. It was chosen as his residence by the margrave Charles II., in 1565, and retained this distinction till the foundation of Carlsruhe in 1715, though it was almost destroyed by the French in 1688. In 1846 it was the seat of a congress of the liberal party of the Baden parliament; and in 1849 it was the scene of an encounter between the Prussians and the insurgents. Reichenbach the mechanician and Posselt the historian

are natives of the town.

DURRA, or INDIAN MILLET, Sorghum vulgare, is a species of grass of the tribe Andropogonea. The terms durra and zurrut are applied to the plant in Arabia; in India it is known as jawari (Hindustani), jowari (Bengali), cholum (Tamil), and jonna (Telugu), and in the West Indies as Negro or Guinea Corn. It is a strong grass, growing to a height of from 4 to 8 or even 16 feet; the leaves are sheathing, solitary, and about 2 inches broad and 2 feet in length; the panicles are contracted, dense, and hermaphrodite; and the seeds, which are inclosed in husks, and protected by awns, are round, hard, smooth, shining, brownish-red, and somewhat larger than mustard seeds. The plant is cultivated in various parts of India and other countries of Asia, in the United States, and in the south of Europe. Its culms and leaves afford excellent fodder for cattle; and the grain, of which the yield in favourable situations is upwards of a hundredfold, is used for the same purposes as maize, rice, corn, and other cereals. Allied species are S. bicolor, much valued in India as a forageplant, and S. saccharatum, commonly called sorghum or Chinese sugar cane, which is extensively cultivated in China, North India, and Africa. The latter species is grown in America chiefly for the manufacture of molasses from its juice, and in France as a source of alcohol. The total quantity of sorghum molasses made in the United States in 1870 has been estimated at 16,050,089 gallons. DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG (1761-1812), pianist and composer, was born at Czaslau, in Bohemia, on the 9th February 1761. His father, Johann Joseph Dussek, a musician of high reputation, was organist and choir-master in the collegiate church of Czaslau, and several other members of the family were distinguished as organists. He had thus the most favourable opportunity for the development of the musical talent which he displayed almost from infancy. Under the careful instruction of his father he made such rapid progress that he appeared in public as a pianist at the age of six. A year or two later he was placed as a choir boy at the convent of Iglau, and he obtained his first instruction in counterpoint from Spenar, the choir-master. When his voice broke he entered on a course of general study, first at the Jesuits' college, and then at the university of Prague, where he took his bachelor's degree in philosophy. During his curriculum of two and a half years he had paid unremitting attention to the practice and study of his art, and had received farther instruction in composition from a Benedictine monk. In 1779 he was for a short time organist in the church of St Rombaut at Mechlin. At the close of this engagement he proceeded to Holland, where he attained great distinction as a pianist, and was employed by the stadtholder as musical instructor to his family. While at the Hague he published his first works in the form of several sonatas and concertos for the piano. He had already composed at the age of thirteen a solemn mass and several small oratorios, which still exist in manuscript. In 1783 he visted Hamburg, and placed himself under the instruction of Emmanuel Bach. Though he believed himself to have derived great benefit from this, it may be questioned whether his genius was not fettered rather than stimulated by the enthusiastic veneration with which he regarded his model. From Hamburg he proceeded to Berlin, where his powers as a pianist met with their accustomed recognition. After spending two years in Lithuania in the service of Prince Radziwill, he went in 1786 to Paris, where he remained, with the exception of a short period spent at Milan, until the outbreak of the Revolution, enjoying the special patronage of Marie Antoinette and great popularity with the public. Towards the close of 1789 he removed to London, where three years later he married a daughter of Dominico Corri, who was

DUVERGIER DE HAURANNE, JEAN (1581-1643), abbé of St Cyran, a celebrated French theologian, was born at Bayonne in 1581. He studied theology at the university of Louvain, where he formed an intimate friendship with Jansen, who was his fellow student. After quitting Louvain he went to Paris, where his intimacy with Jansen continued, and with him he pursued with great ardour the study of the fathers. Leaving Paris in 1611, they continued the same studies at Bayonne, where Duvergier received the canonry of the cathedral. When Jansen left Bayonne, Duvergier returned again to Paris, and shortly after his arrival there his inflexible and ascetic character secured for him the esteem of the bishop of Poitiers, who gave him a canonry, and in 1620 made him abbé of St Cyran. He established in the monastery the order of St Benoît in all its rigour; but his zeal for reform was so great that it awakened opposition, and he found it expedient to quit his diocese and return to Paris. Here he formed a connection with the influential Arnauld family, and along with Angelique Arnauld, directress of the convent of Port Royal, he completely reformed that institution. His rigor ous asceticism acquiring for him great ascendency over feminine minds, his fame and influence increased with great rapidity, and he soon began to number among his disciples members of the highest classes of society, and to have as his personal friends some of the chief dignitaries of church and state. Soon, however, his enemies came to be as numerous as his friends. His rigid and domineering disposition began to alienate from him many of his disciples; and, taking a leading part in the Jansenist controversy, he excited against himself the peculiar animosity of the Jesuits. At last his views came to be suspected by Richelieu, and he was arrested and thrown into prison at Vincennes, 14th March 1638. No evidence could be obtained from his papers sufficient to criminate him, but to limit his influence he was retained in durance at Vincennes-where, however, he was able to keep up intercourse with his penitents and disciples. On the death of Richelieu he regained his liberty, and resumed his religious duties and his war with the Jesuits with the same energy as before; but he enjoyed only six months of freedom, dying from a stroke of apoplexy, 10th October 1643.

DWARAKA, DWARKA, or JIGAT, a town of British India, in Guzerat, near the extremity of the peninsula of Kattywar, in 22° 15′ N. lat. and 69° 1′ E. long. It is surrounded by a wall, has about 2000 permanent inhabitants, and trades in chalk. As the birthplace and residence of Krishna, it is the most sacred spot in this part of India, and its principal temple is visited annually by many thousand pilgrims. The approach from the sea is by a fine flight of stone steps, and the great pyramid rises to a height of 140 feet. Dwârakâ is of course frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata. It was occupied by the British in 1816.

DWARF (Saxon dwerg, dweorg; German, Zwerg), a term applied to men, animals, and plants that fail to reach even the mediocrity of growth natural to their respective classes. It is also otherwise applied. In France, for instance, a yolkless egg is termed "un œuf nain," or dwarf egg; and an imitation of fine English cloth is called "nain Londrin," technically "London dwarf."

The nanus or pumilo of the Romans might be a dwarf by nature or a person dwarfed by cruel art. In the former case, his lack of height found compensation in increased strength, as exemplified in the line by Propertius, "Nanus et ipse suos breviter concretus in artus," &c.; in the latter, where growth had been early suppressed by the dealers who manufactured monstrosities for fashionable people in Rome, weakness bred contempt. The nanus, or, if he were more than usually diminutive, the nanium, was exposed to

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application of the proverb, nanus cum sis, cede," equivalent to "little people must not be in our way!" Various have been the recipes for dwarfing children from birth. The most effective, according to report, was anointing the back bone with the grease of moles, bats, and dormice. It is also said that pups were dwarfed by frequently washing their feet and backbone; the consequent drying and hardening of those parts hindered, it was alleged, their extension. In England, the growth of boys intended for riders in horse-races is kept down to some extent by the weakening process of "sweating."

There is a familiar story of a partnership entered into between a dwarf and a giant. The dwarf had the intellect, the giant had the strength; the result of this limited liability was that the giant received all the blows, and the dwarf all the profits. The partnership was consequently broken up. A fact, of which we are reminded by this fiction, occurred in Austria in the 17th century. To please the caprice of an empress, all the giants and dwarfs in the empire were brought together to Vienna, and were lodged in one building. The dwarfs were told they had nothing to fear from the giants; but the latter were soon put in bodily fear of the dwarfs, who made the life of their stupendous companions unbearable by teazing them, molesting them, tripping them up, and unscrupulously robbing them. The giants, with tears as big as pearls in their eyes, prayed the authorities to relieve them from the persecution of their tiny enemies, and the prayer was granted. At a later period, another German princess promoted marriages among dwarfs, but without succeeding in the object she had in view. When Lady Mary Wortley Montague was in Germany, in the last century, she found that a dwarf was a necessary appendage to every noble family. At that time English ladies kept monkeys. The imperial dwarfs at the Viennese court were described by Lady Mary as "as ugly as devils" and "bedaubed with diamonds." They had succeeded the court fools, and exercised some part of the more ancient office. Absolute princes could not stoop to familiar discourse with mankind of less degree. Therefore did they hold dwarfs to be outside humanity, made intimate associates of them, and allowed them an unrestrained freedom of speech, by the exercise of which the dwarfs imparted to their masters wholesome truths which on the lips of ordinary men would have been treason. One of the kings of Denmark is said to have made a prime-minister of his dwarf, in order to get at rough truths which a minister of ordinary stature would have been afraid to чtter.

It could not have been for this reason that Stanislas, exking of Poland and duke of Lorraine, was so attached to his dwarf, Nicholas Ferry, otherwise known as "Bébé," for this dwarf was weak in mind and body. Bébé was one of three dwarf children of peasant parents in the Vosges. He was 3 feet in height, and his fame has not died out at Nancy and the department of the Meurthe. At his death in 1764 he was in his twenty-third year; and, among the fine phrases of which his epitaph is composed, the world is still assured that Bébé was "chéri du nouvel Antonin."

But Bébé was not so remarkable a dwarf as Richebourg, who died in Paris in 1858, at the age of ninety. He was only 23 inches in height. In his childhood he was a servant (without especial duty) in the Orleans family. In later years, Richebourg was their pensioner. He is said to have been put to strange use in the Revolutionary period,passing in and out of Paris as an infant in a nurse's arms, but with despatches, dangerous to carry, in the little man's baby wrappings! At present, on the Continent, Russia and Turkey alone have a common sympathy for dwarfs. At the court of the sultan, should the dwarf, besides being of elfish height, be deaf, dumb, and qualified to hold a place