in the longitudinal direction, but different segments may be stretched radially with different degrees of tension so as to resemble a series of tense strings of gradually increasing length. Each string would then respond to a vibration of a particular pitch communicated to 't by the hair-cells. The exact mechanism of the hair-cells and of the membrana reticularis, which looks like a damping apparatus, is unknown.

II. Physiological Characters of Auditory Sensation.-1. Under ordinary circumstances auditory sensations are referred to the outer world. When we hear a sound, we associate it with some external cause, and it appears to originate in a particular place, or to come in a particular direction. This feeling of exteriority of sound seems to require transmission through the membrana tympani. Sounds which are sent through the walls of the cranium, as when the head is immersed in, and the external auditory canals are filled with, water, appear to originate in the body itself. It is probable, however, that the external character of ordinary auditory sensations may be more the result of habit than due to any anatomical peculiarity of the ear itself.

2. An auditory sensation lasts a short time after the cessation of the exciting cause, so that a number of separate vibrations, each capable of exciting a distinct sensation if heard alone, may succeed each other so rapidly that they are fused into a single sensation. If we listen to the puffs of a syren, or to vibrating tongues of low pitch, the single sensation is usually produced by about 30 or 35 vibrations per second; but there can be no doubt, as was first pointed ont by Helmholtz, that when we listen to beats of considerable intensity, produced by two adjacent tones of sufficiently high pitch, the ear may follow as many as 132 intermissions per second.

3. The sensibility of the ear for sounds of different pitch is not the same. It is more sensitive for acute than for grave sounds, and it is probable that the maximum degree of acuteness is for sounds produced by about 3000 vibrations per second, that is near fa. Sensibility as to pitch varies much with the individual" and with the training to which he has subjected himself. Thus some musicians may detect a difference of th of the total number of vibrations, while other persons may have difficulty in appreciating a semitone. This power of appreciating differences of pitch is termed a correct or just ear, and there can be no doubt of its improvement by cultivation.

sensations may be perceived. We have in listening to an orchestra a multiplicity of sensations which produces a total effect, while, at the same time, we can with ease single out and notice attentively the tones of one or two special instruments. Thus the pleasure of music may arise partly from listening to simultaneous, and partly from the effect of contrast or suggestion in passing through successive, auditory sensations.

The principles of harmony belong to the subject of music, but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear at the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is experienced, which may be with the syren (see ACOUSTICS) that this depends upon the vibratermed a concord or a discord, and it can be shown by experiment tional numbers of the two tones. The octave (1:2), the twelfth (1:3), and double octave (1:4), are absolutely consonant sounds; the fifth (2:3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then follow, in the direction of dissonance, the fourth (3:4), major sixth (3:5), major third (4:5), minor sixth (5:8), and the minor third (5:6). Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the application of his theory of beats.

Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to the difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats give rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation, comparable to what is experienced on watching a flickering light, and the painful sensation may arise from intermittent irritation of the The maximum roughness of beats, according to Helmholtz, is attained by 33 per second; beyond 132 auditory nerve filaments. per second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform auditory sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano, not only may the first, fundamental, or prime tones beat, but partial tones of each of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference of pitch of two simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats, both of prime tones and of harmonics, augments also. The physiological effect of beats, though these may not be individually distinIf harmonics or partial guishable, is to give roughness to the ear. tones of prime tones coincide, there are no beats; if they do not coincide, the beats produced will give a character of roughness to the interval. Thus in the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones of the acute sound coincide with the partial tones of the grave sound; in the fourth, major sixth, and major third, only two pairs and minor seventh, only one pair of the harmonics coincide. For of the partial tones coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third, details, see Helmholtz, On Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music, translated by Alexander J. Ellis, London, 1875.

DISEASES OF THE EAR.-Deafness may arise from obstruction of the external ear occasioned by disease of various kinds; from ulceration, thickening, or perforation of the membrana tympani; from inflammatory affections. both acute and chronic, of the middle and internal ear; from obstruction of the Eustachian tube caused by inflammation 4. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to of its lining membrane, leading to thickening and accumuinfluence auditive sensation, but probably the two organslation of mucus or pus; from diseases of the throat blocking are enabled, not only to correct each other's errors, but also up the end of the Eustachian tube: and, lastly, from disease to aid us in determining the locality from whence a sound of the auditory nerve or of the terminal apparatus conoriginates. It is asserted by Fechner that one ear may nected with it in the membranous labyrinth. Otitis, or perceive the same tone at a slightly higher pitch than the ear-ache, is an inflammation, usually of a rheumatic nature, other, but this may probably be due to some slight patho- of some portion of the external auditory canal. Most frelogical condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by quently occurring in weakly individuals, it causes intense two tuning forks of equal pitch, are produced one near each pain, which shoots over the head on the affected side. It ear, there is a uniform single sensation; if one of the may lead to the formation of a small abscess in one of the tuning forks be made to revolve round its axis in such a wax glands found in the passage. Hot applications by way that its tone increases and diminishes in intensity, fomentations or warm poultices give relief, and if an neither fork is heard continuously, but both sound abcess forms, it ought to be carefully lanced. Otorrhea alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the re- is a muco-purulent discharge, often of a fœtid odour, volving one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excita- from the ears of scrofulous children. It frequently occurs tions of corresponding elements in the two ears can be dis- during teething, and it may be one of the sequelæ of tinguished from each other. It is probable that the scarlet fever, or measles, or small-pox. When pus flows resulting sensations may be distinguished, provided one of from the ear, it may come from the membrane lining the the generating tones differs from the other in intensity or deeper portion of the external meatus, or from the middle quality, although it may be the same in pitch. ear by a hole in the membrana tympani, or from diseased portions of bone near the middle, or internal ear. The treatment, of course, varies according to the cause, but generally the discharge may be iessened in quantity, and at all events rendered less offensive, by the use of weak in

5. Hitherto we have considered only the audition of a single sound, but it is possible also to have simultaneous auditive sensations, as in musical harmony. It is difficult to ascertain what is the limit beyond which distinct auditory

The coronet of an earl has, rising from a golden circlet, eight lofty rays of gold, each of which upon its point supports a large pearl; also, between each pair of rays, at their bases, there is a golden conventional leaf, the stalks of all these leaves being connected with the rays and with each other so as to form a continuous wreath. In representations, five of the elevated rays with their pearls and four of the leaves are shown. The cap and lining of the coronet, if worn or represented, are the same as those of the ducal coronet. An earl's coronet without cap or lining is represented in the annexed figure.

Earl's Coronet.

jections of carbolic acid or of Condy's fluid. Concretions, | time, under such strange conditions as these, and amidst consisting of accumulations of wax, often hard and adherent, conflicting vicissitudes, until they finally merged in the may block up the external meatus. Frequently these may Crown, the ancient earldoms retained their vitality. They not impair the sense of hearing, but they give rise to dis- might descend very irregularly, and become vested in tressing noises of various kinds. They may be got rid by successive families, but still they did not become extinct; the careful use of injections of soap and hot water. Polypi, nor were the claims of legal inheritance wholly forgotten or usually hard and firm, but sometimes soft and gelatinous, superseded; and, even if for a time they had been latent occur in the external meatus. The external ear may or had actually been superseded, they emerged under more become hypertrophied, as in idiots; it may contain concre- favourable circumstances, and under fresh arrangements or tions of urate of soda, as in gout; and it may be the seat modifications they were again recognized by the Crown. of fibrous tumours. In the insane, large tumours, filled An earl is "Right Honourable," and is styled "My with blood, termed hæmatoma, sometimes occur. One of Lord." His eldest son bears his father's "second title," the most common causes of deafness in children is chronic and therefore, that second title being in most cases a enlargement of the tonsils from repeated quinseys or from viscounty, he generally is styled "Viscount;" under all a strumcus habit. Frequently also the Eustachian tube is circumstances, however, the eldest son of an earl takes occluded, but by passing a delicate catheter along the tube, precedence immediately after the viscounts. The younger and sometimes by inflating artificially the tympanum with sons of earls are "Honourable," but all their daughters air, hearing may be restored. It is difficult to diagnose, are "Ladies." In formal documents and instruments, the and still more difficult to treat, diseases of the internal ear, sovereign, when addressing or making mention of any peer in consequence of its delicacy of structure and inaccessible of the degree of an earl, usually designates him " trusty situation. Pathological states of the internal ear may give and well-beloved cousin,"-a form of appellation first rise to distressing entotic phenomena, such as whizzing, adopted by Henry IV., who either by descent or alliance buzzing, hissing, blowing, or clanging sounds; and if they was actually related to every earl and duke in the realm. are not relieved by washing out the external ear, or by in- The wife of an earl is a countess; she is "Right Honourflating the middle ear by the Eustachian tube, or by able," and is styled "My Lady." counter-irritation by means of small blisters or the application of tincture of iodine behind the ears, nothing more can be done. (J. G. M.) EARL (Latin, comes; French, compte), a title and rank of nobility now the third in the order of the British peerage, and, accordingly, intervening between marquis and viscount. Earl, however, was the highest title and rank of the English nobles post conquestum until the year 1337, when by Edward III. the Black Prince was created duke of Cornwall. The "earl" of England was identical with comte or compte of France; and, so long as Norman-French continued to be spoken in this country, the English "earls" were styled "counts" as well in England as on the Continent. These powerful barons represented and succeeded the Saxon thanes who were ealdormen, their own title évidently having been derived from the jarl of Scandinavia. The nature of a modern earldom is readily understood, since it is a rank and dignity of nobility which, while it confers no official power or authority, is inalienable, indivisible, and descends in regular succession to all the male heirs of the body of the grantee until, on their failure, it merges in the Crown. Not so was it with either the nature or the descent of the ancient earldoms of England. In early feudal times titles independent of office did not exist. The earls, or comites, of those days, therefore, were actual officers, each having supreme authority in his own earldom, or "county," under the Crown; each one of them also deriving from his earldom a certain fixed revenue, the possession of which was at once an apanage of his official dignity as earl, and the evidence of his lawful and recognized title to it. But an earldom has long ceased to be endowed with any official associations whatever, and has become merely a title by which its owners in male succession inherit and hold the dignity, third in rank, of a peerage. In like manner, the descent and tenure of the ancient earldoms differed in many highly important particulars from the simple succession of the modern dignity. In the course of their chequered history, we find ancient earldoms, instead of passing by a quiet and clearly defined succession from father to son, constantly depending on the rights of female inheritance; they are seen to have been obtained by many a husband jure uxoris; they appear to have been transferred in an arbitrary manner, or actually to have been divided between coparceners, or to have been retained for a while by the Crown and let out to farm. At the same

In the monumental effigies of noble personages, which yet remain from the Middle Ages, there are many highly interesting representations of the varieties of coronets worn by the earls of those days and by their countesses, before this coronet had assumed its present fixed and definite character. Thus, early in the 15th century, effigies of an earl and countess of Arundel, at Arundel, have very rich coronets. The earl's has a series of leaves and of clusters of three small balls or pearls alternating, all of them being raised to a considerable height above the circlet, the clusters rising rather higher than the leaves. The coronet of the countess differs in having the raised clusters set alternately with single balls or pearls that are less elevated.1

The coronet of a countess now in all respects is the same as that of an earl. The scarlet parliamentary robe of an earl has three doublings of ermine. The duke of Norfolk, who is premier duke, as earl of Arundel, Surrey, and Norfolk, is premier earl of England; also he holds his earldom of Arundel, a feudal dignity (as it was adjudged by

In his effigy at Warwick, 1439, the crest of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, rises from a plain circlet that is surmounted by a series of pearls slightly raised, but without any leaves. Still later in the century, 1483, Isabel Plantagenet, countess of Essex, in her brass at Little Easton in Essex, has a series of leaves, no less than thirteen in number, that rise to a uniform slight elevation above the front of an ample coronet; and about the same time, 1487, the coronets of another earl and countess of Arundel have their circlets heightened with an uninterrupted series of architectural conventional leaves, and once more, at Hever, in Kent, the brass to Sir T. Boleyn, K.G., earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde, represents the maternal grandfather of Queen Elizabeth, with the insignia of the Garter, and wearing a rich coronet, the circlet of which is set with small pearls in contact, not raised, and so numerous that upwards of twenty are displayed.

afterwards engraved in mezzotint. His most perfect works as engraver are perhaps the fruit and flower pieces after the Dutch artists Van Os and Van Huysum. Amongst his historical and figure subjects are-Agrippina, after West; Love in Bondage, after Guido Reni; the Royal Academy, the Embassy of Hyderbeck to meet Lord Cornwallis, and a Tiger Hunt. the last three after Zoffany; and Lord Heathfield, after Sir Joshua Reynolds. Earlum also executed a series of 200 facsimiles of the drawings and sketehes of Claude Lorraine, which was published in 3 vols. folio, under the title of Liber Veritatis (1777-1819). Earlom died in London, October 9, 1822.*

Parliament, the 11th of Henry VI. 1433), by the fact of his | ings from the pictures at Houghton Hall; and these he hereditary possession of Arundel Castle only. As hereditary Earl-Marshal, his Grace of Norfolk is the head of the College of Arms. (c. B.) EARLE, JOHN (16012-1665), bishop of Worcester and afterwards of Salisbury, was born at York about 1601. He completed his education at Oxford, first entering Christ Church, and taking his degree of B.A. in 1619. He afterwards passed to Merton College, and graduated M.A. in 1624. He was appointed in 1631 proctor of the university, and the same year became chaplain to Philip, earl of Pembroke, then chancellor of the university. He was soon after presented by this nobleman to the rectory of Bishopstone, in Wiltshire, and, having been introduced to the king, Charles I., was appointed chaplain and tutor to Prince Charles. In 1642 Earle took his degree of D.D., and in the following year was elected. one of the famous Assembly of Divines at Westminster. But his sympathies with the king and with the Church of England were so strong that he declined to sit. Early in 1643 he was chosen chancellor of the cathedral of Salisbury; but of this preferment he was soon after deprived. After Cromwell's great victory at Worcester, Earle went abroad, and was named clerk of the closet and chaplain to Charles II. He spent a year at Antwerp in the house of Izaak Walton's friend Dr Morley, who became afterwards bishop of Winchester. He next joined the duke of York (James II.) at Paris, returning to England at the Restoration. He was at once appointed dean of Westminster, and in 1661 was one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy. At the end of November 1662 he was consecrated bishop of Worcester, and was translated, ten months later, to the see of Salisbury. During the plague of London Bishop Earle attended the king and queen at Oxford, and there he died, November 17, 1665. Earle's chief title to remembrance is his witty and humorous work entitled Microcosmography, or a Piece of the World discovered, in Essays and Characters, which throws light on the manners of the time. First printed in 1628, it became very popular, and ran through eight editions in the lifetime of the author. A new edition with notes and appendix, containing much interesting matter, by Philip Bliss, was published in 1811. The style is quaint and epigrammatic; aud the reader is frequently reminded of Thomas Fuller by such passages as this: "A university dunner is a gentlemen follower cheaply purchased, for his own money has hyr'd him." Several reprints of the book have been issued since the author's death; and in 1671 a French translation by J. Dymock appeared with the title of Le vice ridiculé. Earle was employed by Charles II. to make the Latin translation of the Eikon Basilike, published in 1649.

"Dr Earle," says Lord Clarendon in his Life," was a man of great piety and devotion, a most eloquent and powerful preacher. and of a conversation so pleasant and delightful, so very innocent, and 80 very facetious, that no man's company was more desired and loved. No man was more negligent in his dress and habit and mien, no man more wary and cultivated in his behaviour and discourse. He was very dear to the Lord Falkland, with whom he spent as much time as he could make his own.

See especially Bliss's edition of the Microcosmographic, and Arber's Reprint, London, 1868.

EARLOM, RICHARD (1742-1822), English mezzotint engraver, was born in London in 1742. His natural faculty for art appears to have been first called into exercise by admiration for the lord mayor's state coach, just decorated by Cipriani. He tried to copy the paintings, and was sent to study under Cipriani. He displayed great skill as a draughtsman, and at the same time acquired without assistance the art of engraving in mezzotint. In 1765 he was employed by Alderman Boydell, then one of the most liberal promoters of the fine arts, to make a series of draw

EAR-RING, an ornament woru pendent from the ear, and generally suspended by means of a ring or hook passing through the pendulous lobe of the ear. The general usage appears to have been to have ear-rings worn in pairs, the two ornaments iu all respects resembling each other; in aucient times, or sometimes more recently among Oriental races, a single ear-ring has sometimes been worn. The use of this kind of ornament, which constantly was of great value and sometimes was made of large size, dates from the remotest historical antiquity. the earliest ineution of ear-rings occurring in the book of Genesis. It appears probable that the ear-rings of Jacob's family, which he buried with his strange idols at Bethel, were regarded as amulets or talismans, such unquestionably being the estimation in which some ornaments of this class have been held from a very early period, as they still are held in the East. Among all the Oriental races of whom we have any accurate knowledge, the Hebrews and Egyptians excepted, ear-rings always have been in general use by both sexes; while in the West, as well as by the Hebrews and Egyptians, as a general rule they have been considered exclusively female ornaments. By the Greeks and Romans also ear-rings were worn only by women; and the prevalence of this fashion among the races of classic antiquity is illustrated in a singular manner by the ears of the famous statue of the Venus de' Medici being bored, evidently for the reception of pendent jewels. Ear-rings invariably occupy important posi tions among the various remains of ancient and medieval goldsmiths' work that from time to time have rewarded the researches of archæological inquirers. And these early relics, with rare exceptions objects of great beauty and delicacy, never fail to exemplify the artistic styles of their periods, as they were prevalent among the races by whom each individual jewel was produced. Ear-rings of costly materials and elaborate workmanship have been brought to light in considerable numbers in the Troad and in Peloponnesus by Dr Schliemann; jewels of the same class, of exquisite beauty, and of workmanship that is truly wonderful, have been rescued from the sepulchres of ancient Etruria and Greece by Signor Castellani; other ear-rings of gold of characteristic forms have come down to our own times from the ancient Egyptians; we know well what styles of ear-rings were worn by the Romans of the empire and by the early Scandinavians; and recent researches among the burial places of our Anglo-Saxon predecessors in the occupancy of this island have led to the discovery of jewels in considerable numbers, which among their varieties include ear-rings executed in a style that proves the AngloSaxons to have made no inconsiderable advance in the arts of civilization. These same ornaments, which never have fallen into disuse, enjoy at the present day a very high degree of favour; like all other modern jewels, however the ear-rings of our own times as works of arts can claim no historical attributes, because they consist as well of reproductions from all past ages and of every race as of fanciful productions that certainly can be assigned to no style of art whatever.