streets, and displays in its bazaar not only the native woollen stuffs, pottery, and silver work, but also a considerable variety of European goods. In the principal square there is a large mosque dedicated to Abraham, who, according to Mahometan legend, was slain in the city; and in its immediate vicinity is a pond shaded by fine pomegranate, plain, and cypress trees, and tenanted from time immemorial by sacred fish. The only ancient remains are those of a tower ascribed by tradition to Nimrod; but in the neighbourhood there exist extensive catacombs with numerous inscriptions of an early date. The prevailing language is Turkish, though more than three-fourths of the inhabitants are Christian. The population was estimated about 1796 by Olivier as from 20,000 to 24,000; by Buckingham at 50,000; and, in 1873, by Chernik at 40,000. There are two mission establishments, an American and a French, and in connection with the former a school with about 250 pupils. The outskirts are occupied by melongardens, vineyards, and mulberry plantations.

Nothing is known of the origin of Edessa. It has been suggested that probably the early inhabitants were Sabeans, and that the sacred fish originally belonged to the worship of Atergatis. According to the Targum of the pseudo-Jonathan, Jerome, and Ephraem Syrus, the city is to be identified with the Erech of Genesis x. 10, and the local tradition of the Arabs and Jews makes it the same as Ur of the Chaldees; but there is no historical basis for either identification, though the former has received the support of Michaelis, Buttmann, and Von Bohlen. The first authentic mention of the city connects it with Seleucus, who appears to have greatly increased its prosperity, and was probably the bestower of the name by which it is best known in history. This, according to Stephanus, was taken from the Macedonian Edessa, from the abundance of the water in both cities, but a modern etymologist recognizes the Syrian Haditha or New Town. Another designation, Callirhoe, found in the ancient writers, undoubtedly alludes to its fountain; and it is at least possible that this may be the derivation of its modern name-Urhoi among the Syrians, Er Roha among the Arabs, and Orfa among the Turks and Christians. In the time of Antiochus VII., about 135 B.C., the city became the seat or centre of the Osrhoenic kingdom, founded by Orhoi-Bar Khevyo, and governed for centuries by a series of elective monarchs. Of these the eighth in succession, Abgar Bar-Abgar, fought against Lucullus, but afterwards sided with the Romans; the fifteenth Abgar Uchomo is famous for the legendary correspondence with Christ reported by Eusebius. The city was plundered by Trajan's general Lusius Quictus, and the kingdom became tributary in 116. Restored by Hadrian it was finally abolished by Caracalla in 217, and a Roman military colony was established with the title of Colonia Marcia Edessorum. Meanwhile Christianity had been taking fast root in the city, the first church having been built as early at least as 202. By the time of Julian, the wealth of the Christians was sufficient to attract his revengeful cupidity; and in the course of the following century, the number of monasteries alone is said to have exceeded 300. Great theological schools were established, and the city, in fact, became one of the chief seats of Oriental learning. Most famous of all was the Schola Persica or Persian School; but its professors having adopted the Nestorian heresy were expelled by Martyrus the bishop, and the building was destroyed in 489, and replaced by St Mary's Church. The prosperity of the city gradually disappeared during the next five centuries, as it passed successively into the hands of the Arabs and the Seljuks. From the latter it was captured in 1097 by Baldwin de Bouillon, and for the next fifty years it continued an independent Christian countship. Baldwin's successors were his cousin Baldwin II. (1100-1118), Jocelin de Courtenay, surnamed the Great (11181131), and Jocelin II. (1131-1144). The negligence of this last count permitted the city to fall into the hands of Zengi of Mosul, and in 1466, the attempt of the inhabitants to recover their independence brought down the vengeance of Zengi's successor Nur-eddin. The sultans of Egypt and Syria obtained possession in 1181, the Byzantines in 1234, the Mongolians under Tamurlane about 1393, the Turkomans and the Persians at a later date, and finally the Turks in 1637.

See Assemani Biblioth. Orient. vol. I, where the "Chron. Edessenum" is reprinted; Th. L. layer, Historia Osrhoëna et Edessena ex nummis illustrata, St Petersburg, 1734.

EDFU, in Coptish Atbo, from the old Egyptian Tebu, a village of Upper Egypt, in the province of Said, situated about a third of a mile from the left bank of the Nile, 55 miles below the cataracts of Syene, in 24° 58′ 43′′ N. lat. It is inhabited by about 2000 Arabs and Copts, engaged

for the most part in the manufacture of earthenware, which finds ready sale all through Egypt, and is remarkable for the similarity it retains to the ancient pottery represented on the monuments. To the Egyptologist the spot is of extreme interest, as furnishing the most perfect specimen of an ancient Egyptian temple, full details in regard to which may be found in the article ARCHITECTURE, vol. ii. p. 389. By the Greeks and Romans the city to which this splendid building belonged was known as Apollinopolis Magna, the god to whom the temple was dedicated being identified with the Greek Apollo. Under the later empire it was the see of a bishop and the head-quarters of the Legio II. Trajana.

See Belzoni, Narrative, 3d ed., 1822; Wilkinson, Egypt and Thebes, 1843; Lepsius, Ueber eine hieroglyphische Inschrift am Tempel von Edfu, Berlin, 1855; Mariette, Fouilles exécutées en Egypte, &c., d'après les ordres du viceroi, 1867.

EDGEWORTH, MARIA (1767-1849), the creator of the novel of national manners and moral purpose, was the daughter, by his first wife, of Richard Lovell Edgeworth noticed below. She was born at Hare Hatch, Berkshire, in 1767, and did not see Ireland till she was twelve years old. She was educated by her father, who devoted himself with great enthusiasm to the intellectual advancement of his children. In most of her literary undertakings Miss Edgeworth had the advantage of her father's criticism, who also wrote introductions to her novels. "It is my business," he used to say, to cut and correct yours to write on." Many tales and essays were written by Maria for private pleasure before publication was thought of. Practical Education (1798) was a joint work by father and daughter. In 1800 appeared Castle Rackrent, which at once made for her a reputation as a national novelist. This was followed soon after by Belinda, and by the Essay on Irish Bulls, published in partnership with her father, and intended to familiarize the English The work is so public with Irish humour and pathos. thoroughly the joint-product of two minds, that Miss Edgeworth, in writing her father's life, cannot tell distinctly which parts are his, but says that passages in which classical allusions and quotations occur must be her father's, as she

was

"entirely ignorant of the learned languages (Memoirs, second edition, ii. 315). In 1804 appeared Popular Tales; in 1806 Leonora; in 1809 the first instalment of Fashionable Tales, which were finished in 1812; in 1814 Patronage; and in 1817 Harrington, Ormond, and Comic Dramas, which failed on the stage. The death of her father, in that year, recalled her from novel writing to fulfil the sacred duty of completing his Memoirs, which were given to the world in 1820, and of which a second edition was called for in 1821. In 1822 appeared Rosamond, a Sequel to Early Lessons, a work published earlier with contributions from Mr Edgeworth's pen. In August 1823 Miss Edgeworth visited Sir Walter Scott at Abbotsford, where she remained a fortnight; and Scott repaid this visit at Edgeworthtown exactly two years afterwards. In 1825 Miss Edgeworth further continued her tales for the young by the publication of Harry and Lucy. In 1834 appeared Helen, a Tale, her last and one of her best novels; and she afterwards wrote Orlandino, a book for children. Her Letters for Literary Ladies wero suggested by a correspondence between Thomas Day and her father as to the propriety of "female authorship," in which the former stoutly maintained the negative.

Miss Edgeworth died on the 21st of May 1849, after having lived to see her works take rank as English classics. Her influence was deep and lasting. Sir Walter Scott confesses that he was anxious to do for Scotland what Miss Edgeworth had done for Ireland; and it is said that O'Connell regretted deeply that one so powerful did not serve Ireland as an agitator. Her society was courted by

the most distinguished of her contemporaries; and countless tourists, who visited her, returned home charmed by her lively conversation and by the domestic virtues which brightened the home of which she was the centre. With Scott she was on terms of the closest intimacy; Byron admired her works, in spite of his sarcastic reference to "Miss Edgeworth's novels stepping from their covers;" and Lord Macaulay was one of her most enthusiastic worshippers. Among all the incidents," says Mr Trevelyan, "connected with the publication of his History, nothing pleased Macaulay so much as the gratification that he contrived to give to Maria Edgeworth, as a small return for the enjoyment which, during more than forty years, he had derived from her charming writings." Macaulay mentions Miss Edgeworth's name in a note, in which he describes her delineation of King Corny, in Ormond, as "that admirable portrait." Miss Edgeworth, in a letter to Dr Holland, speaks of the "self-satisfaction, vanity, pride, surprise, I had in finding my own name in a

note.

Castle Rackrent, the first and one of the most characteristic of her novels, is lit up throughout with sunny Irish humour, Sir Condy complaining that he " was very ill used by the Government about a place that was promised him and never given, after his supporting them against his conscience very honourably" (1857 edition, p. 39). Leonora has a painful plot. It treats of the seduction of an attached husband by a professed friend of his wife. Leonora's forbearance, however, and her deep-seated love for her husband prove, in the end, too much for the hollow professions and vaunted" sensibility" of Olivia. The Tales of Fashionable Life include Ennui, The Dun, Manoeuvring, Almeria, Vivian, The Absentee, Madame de Fleury, and Emilie de Coulanges. Ennui is a powerful story, and relates how the earl of Glenthorn was cured of the disease which gives its name to the book. There are several fine character studies, including the Earl; M'Leod, the cool, but faithful, Scotch agent; witty Lady Geraldine; Christy, the blacksmith; and Ellinor, the Irish foster nurse, who said, on one occasion, that "if it plased God, she would like to die on a Christmas day, of all days, becaase the gates of Heaven, they say, will be open all that day, and who knows but a body might slip in unknownst? (1857 edition, p. 231). The Dun portrays, with a realism almost too painful, the dreadful privations undergone by the poor who are unable to get in the money justly their due. Manœuvring depicts the efforts of Mrs Beaumont, a clever, scheming, deceitful woman, to marry her son and daughter contrary to their inclinations. For a while all seems to go well with Mrs Beaumont, until she is herself entangled in her net of white lies, and finally thoroughly outwitted. Her character, and that of Mr Palmer, a wealthy merchant from Jamaica, are worthy of the author's high reputation. Almeria traces the rise of the worldly spirit in the breast of a young girl, and the debasing consequences of a passionate pursuit of fashion for its own sake, unredeemed by any ennobling feature. Vivian is an admirably told story, and illustrates the terrible evils which sometimes arise from indecision of character. Vivian, the undecided, brilliant, young noble; Russell, the faithful tutor; Wharton, the unscrupulous politician and voluptuary; self-willed Lord Glistonbury; prim Lady Glistonbury; and vivacious Lady Julia seem to start from the canvas. Absentee, considered by many as Miss Edgeworth's masterpiece, is written to expose the misery entailed on the tenantry by the Irish gentry, who deserted their native country for London, and abandoned their affairs to be managed by unscrupulous agents. The characters are among the most life-like in the annals of fiction. Lady Clonbrony makes herself exquisitely ridiculous in her vain

The

endeavours to act the fine English lady; Lord Colambre, the hero of the novel, travels, under an assumed name, among bis father's tenants in Ireland, finds out how rudely they have been oppressed, and champions their cause s0 skilfully as to win over even Lady Clonbrony; Lady Dashfort and her daughter are wonderfully real representations of heartless women of fashion; the sufferings of the Irish peasantry are drawn with a loving and masterly pencil; and the general sadness of the work is relieved by such humorous sketches as Colonel Heathcock, Sir Terence O'Fay, and Larry Brady, whose inimitable letter closes the book. Macaulay considered the scene in which Lord Colambre discovers himself to his father's tenantry the best passage of the kind since the beginning of the 22d book of the Odyssey. This is very high praise, especially when we remember that Macaulay seems to have read almost every novel-so much was he fascinated by narrative composition. Madame de Fleury is the story of a French lady who set up a school in Paris for neglected girls. The school came to grief at the great Revolution; and its benevolent founder had to fly to England, where she was supported mainly by donations from the girls, who were instigated by Victoire, the heroine of the book. Ultimately her return to France was secured by Basile, Victoire's lover, who had obtained influence with his general through his valuable engineering knowledge. Emilie de Coulanges describes the mortifications two French refugees had to undergo in living with Mrs Somers, an excessively ill-tempered English lady, who was generous enough with her money, but neglectful of kindness of a more delicate order. Mrs Somers's incessant outbursts of temper and reconciliations with Emilie, to be followed inevitably by fresh quarrels, are somewhat wearisome reading. The Modern Griselda, a story treating of the attempts of a wife to bring her husband to abject submission, manifests fine satiric power, and great liveliness-the dialogue being particularly animated. Patronage, which is in the same vein as the Tales of Fashionable Life, rather disappointed the critics, who concluded that Mr Edgeworth had written considerable parts of it. This, however, is expressly denied by Miss Edgeworth (Memoirs, ii. 323). Ormond is an Irish tale, and ranks among the best of Miss Edgeworth's works. It shows how a youth, whose education had been neglected, and whose temper was naturally impetuous, managed to reach true nobility of character. King Corny, Ormond, Sir Ulick O'Shane, Moriarty Carroll, Dora, and Mademoiselle O'Faley are masterly creations. There is a true Irish ring about the book, although it is composed in the purest English. Helen is a novel of thrilling interest, and displays greater passion and a finer insight into the more subtle moods of the human mind than any of Miss Edgeworth's previous works. The moral is that falsehood and deceit almost invariably bring misery in their train. Although on a more elaborate scale than her other books, Helen surpasses them all in grace, charm, and lightness of touch. Such powerfully conceived characters as Lady Davenant, Helen, Cecilia, Beauclerc, Churchill, and the Clarendons, leave an indelible impression on the memory.

Miss Edgeworth's novels are distinguished by good sense, humour, and an easy flowing style. As the construction of a plot is not lengthy novels. The vivacity of her dialogues is extraordinary: her strong point, she is generally more successful in tales than in and in them her characters reveal themselves in the most natural way possible. Her books are character-studies, rather than intensely interesting narratives. Sobriety of judgment is seen throughout; and passion, romance, and poetry rarely, if ever, shed their lustre on her pages. Three of her aims were to paint national manners, to enforce morality, and to teach fashionable society by satirizing the lives of the idle and worldly. She expressly calls some of her stories "Moral Tales"; but they all fall moral tendency of Miss Edgeworth's works are well represented by under this category. The two poles of thought in regard to the Robert Hall, the eminent Baptist preacher, and Monsieur Taine

year. The first thing that broke the monotony of his grief was the arrival of Dr Darwin's poem, the Botanic Garden, about which the author says, "It was your early approbation that contributed to encourago me to go on with the poem " (Memoirs, ii. 113). In 1792 the health of one of Edgeworth's sons took him to Clifton, where he remained with his family for about two years, returning in 1794 to Edgeworthtown. Ireland was, at that time, harassed by internal disturbances, and threats of a French invasion, and Edgeworth offered to establish telegraphic communication of his own invention throughout the country. This offer was declined. A full account of the matter is given in Edgeworth's Letter to Lord Charlemont on the Telegraph; and his apparatus is explained in an "Essay on the Art of Conveying Swift and Secret Intelligence," published in the sixth volume of the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. In the autumn of 1797 Mrs Edgeworth fell a victim to decline. Practical Education, a work which embodied the experience of the authors in dealing with children, was published in 1798. "So commenced," says Miss Edgeworth, "that literary partnership which, for so many years, was the pride and joy of my life" (Memoirs, ii. 170). In the same year Edgeworth married Miss Beaufort, and was elected M.P. for the borough of St John's Town, Longford. The same year, too, saw a hostile landing of the French and a formidable rebellion; and for a short time the Edgeworths took refuge in Longford. The spring of 1802 brought the depressing announcement of Dr Darwin's death; and the winter of that year was spent by the Edgeworths in Paris, where, among many friends, they particularly valued M. Dumont. On his return home he was gratified by Government accepting of his telegraphic apparatus, which worked admirably. In 1802 appeared the Essay on Irish Bulls by Mr and Miss Edgeworth; and in 1806 Edgeworth was elected a member of the Board of Commissioners to inquire into Irish education. From 1807 till 1809 much of his time was spent on mechanical experiments and in writing the story of his life. In 1808 appeared Professional Education, and in 1813 his Essay on the Construction of Roads and Carriages. He died on the 13th of June 1817, and was buried in the family vault in Edgeworthtown churchyard.

Many of Edgeworth's works were suggested by his zeal for the education of his own children. Such were Poetry Explained for Young People, Readings on Poetry, A Rational Primer, and the parts of Early Lessons contributed by him. His speeches in the Irish Parliament have also been published; and numerous essays, mostly on scientific subjects, have appeared in the Philosophical Transactions, the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, the Monthly Magazine, and Nicholson's Journal. The story of his early life, told by himself, is fully as entertaining as the continuation by Maria, as it contains less dissertation and more incident. (T. GI.) EDINBURGH, COUNTY OF, or MID-LOTHIAN, one of the lowland counties of Scotland, is situated between 55° 39′ 30′′ and 50° 59′ 20′′ N. lat., and between 2° 52′ and 3° 45' 10" W. long. It is bounded on the N. by the Firth of Forth, on the N.W. by Linlithgowshire or West-Lothian, on the S.W. by Lanarkshire, on the S. by Peebles and Selkirk, and on the E. by Roxburgh, Berwick, and Haddington or East-Lothian. The area comprises 362 souare miles, or 231,724 acres.

The surface of the county presents a great variety of scenery. The Pentland Hills advance boldly from the south-west to within five miles of the sea, rising to a relative height of from 1000 to 1300 feet. The loftiest summits are Scald Law (1898 feet), Carnethie (1890), West and East Cairn Hill (1844 and 1839), and West Kip (1806). They generally present a rounded appearance, and are covered with heath or grass. The south-eastern corner of the county is occupied by the Moorfoot Hills, which form a continuation of the Lammermuirs, and attain in Blackhope

Scar a height of 2136 feet. Of more or less isolated emi nences throughout the county it is enough to mention the Braid Hills and Blackford Hill to the S. of the city, Arthur's Seat towards the E., Corstorphine Hill about two miles to the W., and Dalmahov Crags about seven miles to the S.W.

With the exception of the Gala, which rises on the south-east side of the Moorfoot Hills and flows south to join the Tweed, and the partial exception of the Tyne, which after a course of about seven miles passes into Haddingtonshire, all the streams, we cannot say the rivers, find their way to the Firth of Forth. The Esk (the largest) drains the district between the Pentlands and the Moorfoot Hills, and falls into the sea at Musselburgh. The southern branch has its sources near Blackhope Scar, receives the Redside and Middleton Burns, and flows past Newbattle Abbey; the northern rises in the Pentlands, and proceeds through much picturesque scenery, past Penicuik, Roslin, Lasswade, and Eskbank; and the union of the two streams takes place a short distance below Dalkeith, within the grounds of Dalkeith Palace. The Braid Burn from Capelaw Hill passes between the Braid Hills and Blackford Hill, and reaches the sea at Portobello. The Water of Leith, with its head streains on the western slope of the Pentlands, flows past Balerno, Currie, Juniper Green, Colinton, Edinburgh, and Leith. The Almond, which has its origin in Lanarkshire, and its right-hand tributary the Breich Water, form the boundary between Mid-Lothian and Linlithgowshire. Most of these streams, and especially the Esk and the Water of Leith, afford a large amount of water-power, well-preserved by means of artificial dams and embankments. The deep ravines which in some places they have formed in the Carboniferous strata through which they flow conceal spots of romantic beauty, in striking contrast to the immediately continguous scenery. The only lake is that at Duddingston, near Edinburgh; but there are several extensive reservoirs connected with the water supply of the city, viz.-Threipmuir, Loganlee, Harelaw, Clubbiedean, and Torduff in the Pentlands, and Gladsmuir and Rosebery on the South Esk. The Cobbinshaw reservoir, situated at the head of the Bog Burn, a tributary of the Almond, is used for the supply of the Union Canal.

The geology of Mid-Lothian is of interest, not only from its intrinsic characteristics, but also as the subject of investigation of many of the most famous among Scottish geologists-Hutton, Hall, Jamieson, Cunningham, Hugh Moorfoot Hills are a continuation of the Silurian tableMiller, Fleming, and others. The Lammermuir and land of the south of Scotland, and consist mainly of strata of greywacke, grit, and shale, greatly contorted, broken, and altered in position. Sandstones, grits, shales, and mud-stones of the Upper Silurian occur in three very limited areas in the Pentland Hills, in the midst of Lower Old Red Sandstone formatious. They are abundantly fossiliferous, especially on the North Esk,-Chondrites verisimilis, Amphispongia oblonga, Protaster Sedgwickii, Pterygotus acuminatus, various Strophomenas, and Euomphalus funatus being among the characteristic forms. The Lower Old Red Sandstone formations just mentioned are a massive series of grits, conglomerates, and volcanic rocks, resting unconform ably on the Upper Silurian series; the Upper Old Red Sandstone is found only in a few small patches in the hollows of the Lower Silurian. All the four series into which it is usual to divide the Carboniferous system are well represented. The Calciferous Sandstone series breaks up into two groups :--the former consisting of reddish sandstones, and forming the south-western eminences of the Pentland Hills and nearly the whole site of the city of Edinburgh; while the latter comprises white and grey sandstones, shales, limestone, and coal, and furnishes a good portion of the