(a) Or. 17.
(a) Or. 10.

SPURIOUS.

Rhetorical Forgeries.

On the Treaty with Alexander.
Fourth Philippic.

(m) Or. 11.
(m) Or. 12.
(m) Or. 13.

Answer to Philip's Letter.

Philip's Letter.

On the Assessment (ouvragis).

II. FORENSIC SPEECHES.

A. IN PUBLIC CAUSES.
GENUINE

Or. 22. In (Kará) Androtionem
Or. 20. Contra (após) Leptinem.....................

Or. 24. In Timocratem...

Or. 23. In Aristocratem...
Or. 21. In Midiam.

image the majesty of the state, and enforce weighty counsels
with lofty and impassioned fervour. A true artist, he (a) Or. 7. On Halonnesus (by Hegesippus)...
grudged no labour which could make the least part of his
work more perfect. Isocrates spent ten years on the
Panegyricus. After Plato's death, a manuscript was found
among his papers with the first eight words of the Republic
arranged in several different orders. What wonder, then,
asks the Greek critic, if the diligence of Demosthenes was
no less incessant and minute? "To me," he says, "it
seems far more natural that a man engaged in composing
political discourses, imperishable memorials of his power,
should neglect not even the smallest details, than that the
veneration of painters and sculptors, who are darkly showing
forth their manual tact and toil in a corruptible material,
should exhaust the refinements of their art on the veins, on
the feathers, on the down of the lip, and the like niceties."
It may be surmised that much of the admiration professed
for Demosthenes in modern times has been conventional.
The clumsiest and coarsest forgeries which bear his name
long received among general readers their share of the
eulogy. A soundly critical study of his text is not yet
sixty years old. To this day popular books occasionally
show traces of the notion that everything which the
manuscripts ascribe to him was written by him. But
modern study has long since learned to recognize the surest
traits of his style; not, indeed, with the exquisite percep-
tion of his old Greek critics, yet sufficiently, as a rule, for
the discrimination of genuine work from false, and on a
firmer diplomatic basis. The modern world can never
catch again the finer tones of that great music as they still

echoed on the ear of Greece in her calm after-time

when all the winds were laid,

And every height came out, and jutting peak
And valley, and the immeasurable heavens
Brake open to their highest;

but men can still hear the voice of a prophet whose
resonant warnings rise above confused sounds of strife;
they can still feel the energy, the anguish, the indignation
which vibrate through his accents; and they can acknow-
ledge, with an admiration undiminished by the lapse of
twenty centuries, the power of his words to quicken the
sense of honour in craven hearts, to raise the votaries of
selfish luxury to the loyalty of prolonged self-sacrifice, to
nerve irresolute arms for an inevitable struggle, and, when
all has been lost, to sustain the vanquished with the
thought that, though a power above man has forbidden
them to prevail, yet their suffering has saved the lustre of
a memory which they were bound to guard, and has left
them pure before the gods.

More than half of the sixty-one speeches extant under
the name of Demosthenes are certainly or probably spurious.
Much difference of opinion still exists in particular cases,
especially as regards two or three of the private speeches.
The results to which the preponderance of opinion now
leans are given in the following table. Those marked
a were already rejected or doubted in antiquity; those
marked m, first in modern times :—

I. DELIBERATIVE SPEECHES.

351

Or. 19. On the Embassy..
Or. 18. On the Crown.

(a) Or. 58. In Theocrinem.

342 BC

SPURIOUS.

(a) Or. 25, 26. In Aristogitona I. and II. (Rhetorical
forgeries).

Οτ. 60 (Επιτάφιος) and Or. 61 (ερωτικός) are works of rhe toricians. The six epistles are also forgeries; they were used by the composer of the twelve epistles which bear the name of Æschines. The 56 poolua, exordia or sketches for political speeches, are by various hands and of various dates. They are valuable as being compiled from Demosthenes himself, or from other classical models.

The ancient fame of Demosthenes as an orator can be compared only with the fame of Homer as a poet. Cicero, with generous appreciation, recognizes Demosthenes as the standard of perfection. Dionysius, the closest and most B.C. penetrating of his ancient critics, exhausts the language of admiration in showing how Demosthenes united and elevated whatever had been best in earlier masters of the Greek idiom. Hermogenes, in his works on rhetoric, refers to Demosthenes, as prop, the orator. writer of the treatise On Sublimity knows no heights loftier than those to which Demosthenes has risen. From his own younger contemporaries, Aristotle and Theophrastus, who founded their theory of rhetoric in large part on his VII.

Or. 15. For the Rhodians..

Or. 1. First Olynthiac..

349

349

Or. 3. Third Olynthiac.

Or. 5. On the Peace.

1

Or. 6. Second Philippic.

Or. 8. On the Affairs of the Chersonese...

Or. 9. Third Philippic.

Or. 2. Second Olynthiac...

- 10

The

practice, down to the latest Byzantines, the consent of
theorists, orators, antiquarians, anthologists, lexicographers,
offered the same unvarying homage to Demosthenes. His
work busied commentators such as Xenon, Minucian,
Basilicus, Ælius Theon, Zosimus of Gaza. Arguments to
his speeches were drawn up by rhetoricians so distin-
guished as Numenius and Libanius. Accomplished men
of letters, such as Julius Vestinus and Ælius Dionysius, |
selected from his writings choice passages for declamation
or perusal, of which fragments are incorporated in the mis
cellany of Photius and the lexicons of Harpocration, Pollux,
and Suidas. It might have been anticipated that the purity
of a text so widely read and so renowned would, from the
earliest times, have been guarded with jealous care. The
works of the three great dramatists had been thus
protected, about 340 B.C., by a standard Attic recension.
But no such good fortune befell the works of Demosthenes.
Alexandrian criticism was chiefly occupied with poetry.
The titular works of Demosthenes were, indeed, registered,
with those of the other orators, in the catalogues (onTopikoì
Tívakes) of Alexandria and Pergamus. But no thorough
attempt was made to separate the authentic works from
those spurious works which had even then become mingled
with them. Philosophical schools which, like the Stoic,
felt the ethical interest of Demosthenes, cared little for his
language. The rhetoricians who imitated or analyzed his
style cared little for the criticism of his text. Their treat-
ment of it had, indeed, a direct tendency to falsify it. It
was customary to indicate by marks those passages which
were especially useful for study or imitation. It then
became a rhetorical exercise to recast, adapt, or interweave
such passages. Sopater, the commentator on Hermogenes,
wrote on μεταβολαὶ καὶ μεταποιήσεις τῶν Δημοσθένους χωρίων,
"adaptations or transcripts of passages in Demosthenes."
Such manipulation could not but lead to interpolations or
confusions in the original text. Great, too, as was the
attention bestowed on the thought, sentiment, and style of
Demosthenes, comparatively little care was bestowed on his
subject-matter. He was studied more on the moral and
the formal side than on the real side. An incorrect sub-
stitution of one name for another, a reading which gave
an impossible date, insertions of spurious laws or decrees,
were points which few readers would stop to notice. Hence
it resulted that, while Plato, Thucydides, and Demosthenes
were the most universally popular of the classical prose-
writers, the text of Demosthenes, the most widely used
perhaps of all, was also the least pure. His more careful
students at length made an effort to arrest the process of
corruption. Editions of Demosthenes based on a critical
recension, and called 'Arrikiavá (ávtíypada), came to be
distinguished from the vulgates, or δημώδεις ἐκδόσεις.

tions. The fullest authority on the MSS. is Th. Voemel,
Notitia codicum Demosth., and Prolegomena Critica to his
edition published at Halle (1856-7), pp. 175-178.
The extant scholia on Demosthenes are for the most
part poor. Their staple consists of Byzantine erudition;
and their value depends chiefly on what they have preserved
of older criticism. They are better than usual for the ПIepì
Στεφάνου, Κατὰ Τιμοκράτους; best for the Περὶ Παραπρεσ-
Beías. The Greek commentaries ascribed to Ulpian are
especially defective on the historical side, and give little
essential aid. Editions:-Scholia et Ulpiani commentarii
in Demosth., ed. C. Müller, in Oratt. Att., Par., 1846-7;
Scholia Græca in Demosth. ex codd. aucta et emendata,
Oxon, 1851.

Editions and Commentaries.-In the vast literature of Demosthenes, only a few books can be named here as specially notable or useful for the English student. Editio princeps, Aldus, Venice, 1549, chief ed., 1572; J. Taylor, Cambridge, 1748; J. Reiske 1504; Aldina posterior (more correct), 1527; Jerome Wolf, Basel, (with notes of J. Wolf, J. Taylor, J. Markland, &c.), Leipsic, 1770–5; revised ed. of Reiske by G. H. Schafer, Lond., 1823-6; I. Bekker, in Orat. Att. (the first edition which was based on Codex Σ, see above), Leipsic, 1823-1828; G. H. Dobson, in Oratures Attici, Lond. 1828; Baiter and Sauppe, in Oratt. Attici, 1850 Dindorf (in Teubner), 1867; Whiston, with English notes, 18591868.

Particular Speeches.-De Falsa Legatione, R. Shilleto (3d ed.),

1864; G. H. Heslop, 1872. De Corona, A. Holmes, 1871; G. A.

and W. H. Simcox (with Eschines In Ctesiph.), 1873. In Midiam, A. Holmes (after Buttmann), 1868; Olynthiacs and Philippics, G. H. Heslop, 1868. Select Private Orations [Part I. Contra Phormionem, Lacritum, Pantænetum, Boeotum de Nomine, id. de Dote, Part Dionysodorum: as to the last two, see list of speeches above. Cononem, Calliclem], F. A. Paley and J. E. Sandys, Cambridge, II. Pro Phormione, Contra Stephanum I. II., Nicostratum, 1874-5.-Indices to Demosthenes, Reiske, ed. Schäfer, Lond.

1823.

Illustrative Literature.-Arnold Schäfer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit, 3 vols. Leipsic, 1856-8, a masterly and exhaustive historical work; K G. Böhnecke, Demosthenes, Lykurgus, Hyperides, und ihr Zeitalter, Bert. 1864: Bouillé, Histoire de Demosthène, ed. Par. 1868; T. Forsyth, Hortensius, 1874; Brodribb, Demosthenes (in Classics for English Readers), 1877; Nicolai, Griechische Literanedy's Translations (8 vols., Bohn) are models of scholarly finish, turgeschichte (esp. for bibliography of Demosthenes). C. R. Kenand the appendices on Attic law, &c., are of great value. Transla tions of the Speech on the Crown, by W. Brandt, (1870), and Sir R. Collier, (1876). (R. C. J.)

DEMOTICA, a town of European Turkey in the province of Adrianople and sanjak of Gallipoli, situated 25 miles south of the provincial capital, at the foot of a conical hill which rises on the right bank of the Maritza near its junction with the Kizildeki. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop; and, besides the ancient citadel and palace on the top of the hill, it possesses several Greek churches, a mosque, and public baths. Charles XII. of Sweden resided at Demotica for more than a year after the battle of Pultowa. The town was in great part burned down in 1845.

Among the extant manuscripts of Demosthenes-upwards of 170 in number-one is far superior, as a whole, to the rest. This is Parisinus Σ 2934, of the 10th century. A com- DEMPSTER, THOMAS (1579-1625), a Scottish scholar, parison of this MS. with the extracts of Ælius, Aristides, and was born at Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, and was the twentyHarpocration from the Third Philippic favours the view that fourth of twenty-nine children of the same mother. From it is derived from an 'ATTikiavóv, whereas the Snuúdes éxdó- his earliest years he gave promise of the learned attainments σes, used by Hermogenes and by the rhetoricians generally, which gained him contemporary celebrity and posthumous have been the chief sources of our other manuscripts. The fame. At a very early age, qualified by the tuition of collation of this manuscript by Immanuel Bekker first placed Thomas Cargill, his classical master in Aberdeen-of whom the textual criticism of Demosthenes on a sound footing. he speaks in his Historia Ecclesiastica as vir literatissimusNot only is this manuscript nearly free from interpola- he entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. After having tions, but it is the sole voucher for many excellent readings. studied there for some time, he went to Paris, but did not Among the other MSS., some of the most important are- continue his studies, on account of a contagious disease Marcianus 416 F, of the 10th century, the basis of the which closed the schools and prostrated himself. On his Aldine edition; Augustanus L. (N 85), derived from the recovery he hastened to Louvain, where he was selected, last, and containing scholia to the speeches on the Crown along with other young Scotchmen; to go to Rome for the and the Embassy, by Ulpian, with some by a younger furtherance of his education. Through the kindness of writer, who was perhaps Moschopulus; Parisinus Y; Cardinal Cajetan, he became a student in the Roman semiAntverpiensis -the last two comparatively free from addi-nary; but he had hardly begun the art of Latin versifica

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The live stock of the county in the same years was distributed thus:

Cattle.

Sheep. 273,721

Pigs.

Horses.

24,240

258,464

24,438

11,395
11,789

1873.......58,122
1876.......56,975

1712, by Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by
Prince Eugene; and the battle-field is marked by a mono-
lithic monument inscribed with the verses of Voltaire-
Regardez dans Denain l'audacieux Villars
Disputant le tonnerre à l'aigle des Césars.
DENBIGH, a maritime county of North Wales, is
In the valleys, and indeed far up the sunny slopes
about 40 miles in its extreme length from N.W to S.E., of the hills, the latest improvements in agriculture
by 36 at its greatest and 8 at its least width, where it is may be observed, and the reaping hook and the flail
divided into two unequal portions. It embraces a super-machines. This progress has been largely due to several
are fast disappearing before the reaping and the thrashing
ficial area of 392,005 statute acres, or 612 square miles.
The population in 1871 amounted to 105,102 persons,
Farmers' Clubs, such as the Denbighshire and Flintshire,
52,866 males and 52,236 females; in 1861 it numbered the Vale of Conway, and the Cerrigydrudion. But the
100,778, and in 1851, 92,583. The county was formed railways have done still more. The Vale of Llanrwst, the
27 Hen. VIII, out of the lordships of Denbigh, Ruthin, Vale of Clwyd, and the Denbigh and Chester lines have
Rhos, and Rhyfoniog, corresponding roughly with the dis- linked their respective districts to the great trunk line
trict called Perfeddwlad (or the midland between the of the London and North Western; whilst the Denbigh,
Conway and the Clwyd), and the lordships of Bromfield, Ruthin, and Corwen, the Corwen and Rhuabon, the
Yale, and Chirkland, which at an earlier period had been
Wrexham and Connah's Quay, and yet again the Rhos-
comprised in the possessions of Gruffydd ap Madoc, the llanerchrugog and the Glyn Ceiriog tramways, have done
the same for the Great Western,-thus opening all the main
arteries of the county alike to external and internal com-
munication, and vastly developing its resources. Down
the picturesque Vale of Llangollen also runs the great
Holyhead Road-in its day the principal means of com-
munication between London and Ireland, and for

lord of Dinas Bran. It is bounded on the W. in its northern
division by the River Conway, from one of its ancient
mouths in Llandrillo Bay to its source in the Migneint
mountains, in the southern by the Berwyn chain, and on its
extreme E by the line of the Dee, the Ceiriog, and a
portion of Offa's Dyke. The intervening surface is very
irregular, and its physical character highly diversified. The
N.W. portion is occupied by the bleak, bare table-land of
the Hiraethog hills, which slope on the west to the valley
of the Conway and on the east to the Vale of Clwyd, by
which they are divided from the Clwydian range and the
hills of Yale. On the N. it stretches along the bays of
Colwyn and Abergele, and on the S. it is separated from
Merionethshire by the Yspytty and Llangwm range. From
this watershed flow tributaries of the Clwyd, the Conway,
and the Dee-viz., the Elwy, the Aled, the Clywedog, the
Merddwr, and the Alwen. The valleys along which some of
these streams flow are, from their fertility and natural beauty,
in striking contrast to their bleak surroundings. Among
these may be specified the beautiful gorge of the Elwy
and the broad fertile plain of the Vale of Clwyd. Of the
other division, which extends from near Farndon Bridge in
the N.E. to the Rhaiadr in Mochnant S.W.,
that portion
which lies between the Rhuabon hills and the Dee is
extremely rich in minerals as well as in agricultural
produce; the other portion, from the Berwyn to Offa's
Dyke, is comparatively wild and barren, save the pretty
valley of the Tanat, the cup-like plain of Llansilin, and the
lower reaches of the Ceiriog. One of the feeders of the
Tanat rolls down a waterfall named Pistyll Rhaidr, which
is 240 feet high; and another rises in the little lake
of "Llyncaws," which nestles beneath Moel Sych, 2716
feet, the highest point in the Berwyn range, and indeed
in the county. There are also a few lakes in the Hiraethog
district, the largest of which-Aled and Alwen-give rise
to rivers of the same names.

Soil and Agriculture. On the uplands the soil is too cold and poor, and the seasons too uncongenial to admit of good corn crops; but a more profitable investment is made in the rearing of mountain ponies and of sheep and black cattle, which are sold in great numbers to be fattened in the Midland Counties of England, for the London market. Less than a third of the surface is under cultivation; and the agricultural acreage was thus tributed in the years 1873 and 1876

Grass under rotation. 41,699 42,837

engineering skill, excellency of workmanship, and beauty
of scenery probably still unsurpassed in the United King
dom.

develops all the principal strata that intervene between
The geology of the county is full of interest, as it

the Lower Silurian and the Triassic series. In the Lower

Silurian district, which extends from the southern boundary
to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo formation of the eastern
slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of shelly sandstone
are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive felspathic
porphyry and ashes; northwards from the Ceiriog to the
Upper Silurian covers the entire mass of the Hiraethog and
limestone fringe at Llandrillo, the Wenlock shale of the
Clwydian hills, but verging on its western slopes into the
Denbighshire grit, which may be traced southward in a
continuous line from the mouth of the Conway as far a
Llanddewi Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire. On its eastern
slope a narrow broken baud of the Old Red crops up along
the Carboniferous Limestone extends from Llanymynach, its
the Vale of Clwyd and in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this
forks into two divisions that terminate respectively in the
extreme southern point, to the Cyrny brain fault, and there
Great Orme's Head and in Talargoch, and are separated
from each other by the denuded shales of the Moel Famma
range. In the Vale of Clwyd the limestone underlies the
New Red Sendstone, and in the eastern division it is itself
overlaid by the millstone grit of Rhuabon and Minera,
and by a long reach of the coal measures which near
broad strip of the Permian succeeds, and yet again between
this and the Dee the ground is occupied-as in the Vale
of Clwyd--by the New Red.

Wrexham are 4 miles in breadtb. Eastward of these a

The mineral resources of the county under these condi. at Nantglyn; slates and slabs for ornamental purposes, on tions are naturally considerable. Paving flags are raised a large scale, on Rhiwfelen, near Llangoller; and slates at Glyn Ceiriog. The limestone is used largely, and exported dis-extensively for building, fluxing, and agricultural purposes; and at Brymbo there is a fine layer of China stone. The sandstones of Cefn Rhuabon are wrought into grindstones, and the grit is used for millstones. The coal measures at Chirk, Rhuabon, and Brymbo are very productive, the number of collieries in 1875 being 61, and the quantity raised annually estimated at 1,379,560 tons. In close contiguity to the coal seams, ironstone is found; and the six furnaces in

Of the coru crops. oats occupy much the largest amount of acreage, and of green crops, turnips.

3

2

blast at Rhuabon and at Brymbo (where John Wilkinson | chambered tomb containing skeletons, which, on compariwas the first to introduce the industry) produced (together son with a similar type found at Perthi Chwareu, gave with one in Flintshire) in the same year 55,099 tons of rise to the title of the "Flaty cnemic Men of Denbighpig iron, valued at £232,000. Lead ore is another and shire." still more important item; the most productive mine has been the Great Minera, which yields profits of about £30,000 a year. The seven mines in the county produced, in 1875, 2600 tons of lead ore, 1954 tons of lead, and 10,873 ounces of silver. One of the latest industries introduced has been the manufacture of dynamite in the valley of the Ceiriog. At the village of Llansantffraid, and at Llangollen, there are woollen factories.

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