"The carpenter stretcheth out his rule; he marketh it out with a line; he fitteth it with planes, and he marketh it out with the compass, and maketh it after the figure of a man, according to the beauty of a man; that it may remain in the house. He heweth him down cedars, and taketh the cypress and the oak, which he strengtheneth for himself among the trees of the forest: he planteth an ash, and the rain doth nourish it. Then shall it be for a man to burn: for he will take thereof, and warm himself; yea, he kindleth it, and baketh bread; yea, he maketh a god, and worshippeth it; he maketh it a graven image, and falleth down thereto. He burneth part thereof in the fire; with part thereof he eateth flesh; he roasteth roast, and is satisfied; yea, he warmeth himself, and saith, Aha, I am warm, I have seen the fire. And the residue thereof he maketh a god, even his graven image: he falleth down unto it, and worshippeth it, and prayeth unto it, and saith, Deliver me; for thou art my god. And none considereth in his heart, neither is there knowledge nor understanding to say, I have burned part of it in the fire; yea, also I have baked bread upon the coals thereof; I have roasted flesh, and eaten it: and shall I make the residue thereof an abomination? shall I fall down to the stock of a tree?"-Isa. xliv. 13-17, 19.

The relation of a whole and its parts has sometimes a reference to questions in political economy.

"Let us now observe how the value of a commodity resolves itself into three component parts. Take for instance a load of hay; its price pays first the wages of the labourer who cut down the grass and made it into hay-then the profits of the farmer who sells it, and lastly, the rent of the field in which it grew. This, therefore, constitutes the whole cost of production of the load of hay, and may be called its natural value.”—Mrs. Marcet.

3. We shall now consider the application of this principle to moral ideas.

The word moral is not used here in its ethical sense, as opposed to immoral, but as opposed to physical. We cannot divide these ideas into parts so readily as we can divide arithmetical numbers, or as we may carve a fowl. Hence we often use the words imply or include, in order to denote the simple ideas of which they are composed. Thus at page 19, I have considered independence of mind as implying or including several things. Possibly it includes several other things besides those I have mentioned. But we are able to argue from these. For if it be a duty to cherish independence of mind, then it is a

duty to cherish every one of the parts or principles of which it is composed. So gratitude includes a consciousness of favours received-a disposition to acknowledge them on proper occasions—and a resolution to return them when an opportunity occurs. Honour includes a regard to truth in words-humanity and generosity in actions-candour and forgiveness in thought, and resentment of insult or affront.

Under this relation we may class the points of belief, or practice adopted by any public body. The following are the points of the charter contended for by the Chartist: 1. Equal Electoral Districts. 2. Universal Suffrage. 3. Vote by Ballot. 4. Triennial Parliaments. 5. No Property Qualification for Members. 6. Payment of Representatives.

Lord John Russell, in his letter to the Bishop of Durham, thus enumerates the several parts or doctrines that form what is called Puseyism.

Clergymen of our own Church, who have subscribed the Thirty-nine Articles, and acknowledged in explicit terms the Queen's supremacy, have been the most forward in leading their flocks, step by step to the very verge of the precipice. The honour paid to saints, the claim of infallibility for the Church, the superstitious use of the sign of the cross, the muttering of the Liturgy so as to disguise the language in which it is written, the recommendation of auricular confession, and the administration of penance and absolution-all these things are pointed out by clergymen of the Church of England as worthy of adoption, and are now openly reprehended by the Bishop of London in his Charge to the clergy of his diocese."

From the character of the individual doctrines, or practices, we infer the character of the whole system.

The settlement of a public question will sometimes turn upon this relation of a whole and its parts. Baron Rothschild took all the oath required from Members of Parliament, except the words, "Upon the true faith of a Christian." His friends contended that these words were not part of the oath, and that the Baron, having now taken the oath, should be allowed to take his seat. The House of Commons decided that these words formed a

part of the oath. The Baron, therefore, could not take

his seat.

4. The following are erroneous reasonings in relation to

this principle.

He

Saul, the king of Israel, was Amalekites, and their cattle. kites but not their cattle. he had obeyed the command. was equal to the whole.

commanded to destroy the He destroyed the Amaleafterwards contended that He considered that a part

When a public body, or society governed jointly by a number of managers, is prosperous, each manager will take to himself a high degree of credit for having caused that prosperity. On the other hand, when the society becomes involved in difficulties, each manager is anxious to show that no part of the blame belongs to him; thus the totals of the praise or blame which each manager is willing to take to himself is more or less than the total that belongs to the whole body. It should be recollected in such cases that, whether of applause or censure, the total of all the parts cannot be either more or less than the whole.

Mr. Caudle having lent a friend five pounds, Mrs. Caudle enumerates four or five ways in which this amount might have been employed, and then concludes that the lending of this one sum of five pounds has subjected her to all those privations.

"You ought to be very rich, Mr. Caudle. I wonder who'd lerd you five pounds? But so it is: a wife may work and may slave! Ha, dear! the many things that might have been done with five pounds. As if people picked up money in the street! But you always were a fool, Mr. Caudle! I've wanted a black satin gown these three years, and that five pounds would have pretty well bought it. All the girls want bonnets, and where they're to come from I can't tell. Half five pounds would have bought 'em-but now they must go without. Next Tuesday the fire-insurance is due. I should like to know how it's to be paid. Why, it can't be paid at all. That five pounds would have just done it—and now, insurance is out of the question. I did think we might go to Margate this summer. There's poor little Caroline, I'm sure she wants the sea. But no, dear creature! she must stop at home-all of us must stop at home-she'll go into a consumption, there's no doubt of that; yes, sweet little angel! I've made up my mind to lose her, now. The child might have been saved; but people can't save their children and throw away their five pounds too."

Dean Swift, in his sarcastic "Advice to Servants," counsels them to act on the same fallacy.

"The cook, the butler, the groom, the market-man, and every other servant who is concerned in the expenses of the family, should act as if his master's whole estate ought to be applied to that servant's particular business. For instance, if the cook computes his master's estate to be a thousand pounds a-year, he reasonably concludes, that a thousand pounds a-year will afford meat enough, and therefore he need not be sparing; the butler makes the same judgment, so may the groom and the coachman; and thus every branch of expense will be filled to your master's honour."

SECTION III.

THE RELATION OF GENUS AND SPECIES.

THIS relation is founded upon the act of classification. Let us take a tree. There are many kinds of trees, as the oak, the elm, and there is a great number of oaks and elms. Here, then, a tree is the GENUS, oak, elm, are the species, and a particular oak or elm that we may happen to see, is an individual.

In all the branches of natural history, classification is very generally introduced. It is a rule, that the GENUS can always be asserted of each species. Thus we can say, an oak is a tree,—an elm is a tree,-a vine is a tree. This shows that tree is a genus, and that oak, elm, and vine, are species under that particular genus, We may say- —a horse is an animal, an ox is an animal, a dog is an animal. This proves that animal is a genus, and that dog, horse, and ox, are species under that genus. Each species may again be divided into inferior species, as there are various kinds of dogs, horses, and oxen.

Genus and species have a reference to moral ideas, as well as to physical ones. Thus we may say, industry is a virtue, frugality is a virtue, temperance is a virtue. This shows that virtue is a genus, and that frugality, industry, and temperance are its species.

You will observe that, although I call this, for brevity

sake, the relation of genus and species, you must always remember that, while a genus may be divided into species, each species may again be subdivided into individuals. I use these words, genus and species, being words in common use, to express the general idea of classification. The word genus denotes a large class-the word species a small class included in the large class. This small class may sometimes be again subdivided into smaller classes, and an individual is a single thing forming a part of the smallest class. It is clear that any single thing included in a smaller class must be included in a larger class. This is the foundation of all our reasonings from the relation of genus and species.

1. The following are examples of classification:

"All flesh is not the same flesh: but there is one kind of flesh of men, another flesh of beasts, another of fishes, and another of birds."-1 Cor. xv. 39.

Wives, submit yourselves unto your own husbands, as it is fit in the Lord. Husbands, love your wives, and be not bitter against them. Children, obey your parents in all things: for this is well pleasing unto the Lord. Fathers, provoke not your children to anger, lest they be discouraged."-Col. iii. 18-21.

It is

"Mountain water, as it is pure and cold to the taste, is also beneficial to the health for drinking. If it cannot be obtained, river water may be resorted to. Well water I put in the last place, although everywhere it is agreeable for its coldness. almost always hard, unsuitable for dissolving soap and for cooking vegetables. The water of lakes, even although they may contain the purest waters, and appear pellucid, nevertheless become tepid from their isolation, and are flat and vapid.”—Report of the General Board of Health.

"The capital of a manufacturer is of two kinds, fixed and circulating. The fixed capital remains always in his possession, as the mills, warehouses, &c. The circulating capital is always going out of his possession, as the materials of the manufacture, the wages of the workmen, &c. So the horses that draw the plough are part of the farmer's fixed capital, the sheep and oxen he sends to market for sale are part of his circulating capital."

Anon.

"We are authorized to announce that J. W. Gilbart, Esq., F.R.S., will present the sum of One Hundred Pounds to the author of the best Essay which shall be written in reply to the following question ::—' In what way can any of the articles col