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shazzar. And the living Nabonnidus of Berosus, cannot by any method be shown to be the slaughtered Belshazzar of Daniel.

*

In this difficulty, some commentators, like Hengstenberg, identify Belshazzar with Cyaxeres, or with the successor of Nebuchadnezzar, whose name was Laborosoarchod, and deny the correctness of Berosus; while critics of the sceptical school openly say, with Professor Newman, "No hypothesis will reconcile this account with the other, since it is certain that Nabonnidus is the last king in the one narrative, as Belshazzar in the other."+

The ruins of Chaldæa have solved the problem. A clay cylinder, now in the British Museum, disinterred from the ruins of Mugheir (the ancient Ur of the Chaldees), by its revelation of a hitherto unknown and unsuspected fact, brings into wonderful harmony all known events, and removes the apparent discrepancies which the sceptic pronounces irreconcileable. This antique memorial, after relating how Nabonnidus rebuilt a temple more ancient than his own days, proceeds to invoke the moon, to whose worship the structure was dedicated, and ends with the following prayer:

"And as for me, Nabonnidus, King of Babylon, preserve me in the pure faith of thy great divinity! Give me abundance of length of days, even to overflowing! And to Bel-sar-ussur, my eldest son, my rising hope; fix firmly in his heart the awe of thy great divinity! And like the duration of the moon itself may the splendour of this temple endure!"‡

Three other cylinders, all of the same tenor, were found besides the above. Sir Henry Rawlinson thus applies the facts they disclose to the elucidation of the above difficulty:

* Genuineness of Daniel, p. 253. Kitto's Cyclopædia, art. Belshazzar. Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 19, p. 195, translated by H. F. Talbot, Esq.

"The eldest son of Nabonnidus was named Bel-shar-ezer, and he was admitted by his father to a share in the government. This name is undoubtedly the Belshazzar of Daniel, and thus furnishes us with a key to the explanation of that great historical problem which has hitherto defied solution. We can now understand how Belshazzar, as joint king with his father, may have been governor of Babylon when the city was attacked by the combined forces of the Medes and Persians, and may have perished in the assault which followed; while Nabonnidus, leading a force to the relief of the place, was defeated, and obliged to take refuge in the neighbouring town of Borsippus, capitulating after a short resistance, and being subsequently assigned, according to Berosus, an honourable retirement in Carmania." §

This very remarkable explanation finds additional support in the reward promised to Daniel by Belshazzar, should he unravel the meaning of the mystic writing on the wall. "If thou canst read the writing," said the king, "and make known to me the interpretation thereof, thou shalt be the third ruler in the kingdom." Why the third? Because Nabonnidus was the first, and Belshazzar himself the second. To no higher rank than the third place in the government could Daniel be advanced. In this incident the statement of the cylinder receives a most remarkable and undesigned confirmation.

From this discovery, the long-disputed problem, therefore, receives a simple and complete solution. Its bearing on the authenticity of the Book of Daniel is of the first importance. If the book had been portance. composed at a later period, by some other hand-in the time of the Maccabees, for instance—it is highly improbable that the writer would have known a fact of which all the secular historians, Herodotus, Xenophon, and Berosus, were ignorant. The book is not simply original; it is

§ Athenæum, No. 1577, p. 341

drawn from sources open to no other author. Whoever he may be, he clearly possessed an accuracy of knowledge which only a man in the position of Daniel could acquire. He must have been an actor in the scenes he describes.

It is time that both commentators and sceptics learnt to abstain from hasty conclusions and wild hypothe

ses, and to await the revelations which Divine Providence is ever making in confirmation of God's written word: "He giveth wisdom unto the wise, and knowledge to them that know understanding; He revealeth the deep and secret things; he knoweth what is in the darkness, and the light dwelleth with him." (Dan. ii. 21, 22.

JOHN CALVIN.

BY THE REV. J. M. CRAMP, D.D., ACADIA COLLEGE, NOVA SCOTIA. IN TWO PARTS.-PART I.

He was born at Noyon, Picardy, July 10, 1509. His father was secretary to the bishop, and fondly hoped that by devoting his son to the priesthood he would raise his family to high distinction. A chapelry in the neighbourhood, to which a small salary was attached, was bestowed on the boy when he was only twelve years old, and he received the first tonsure, sealing him to the ecclesiastical life. Two livings were afterwards given to him, the emoluments from which helped to defray the expenses of his education.

Calvin entered the College de la Marche, in the University of Paris, in the year 1523. There he had for his Latin tutor Matthew Corderius, whose name suggests a book with which some of our readers were familiar in their boyish days. Corderius was an enthusiastic scholar, and delighted in such a pupil as Calvin. When he saw how he was absorbed in his studies, and how he distanced every competitor, he confidently predicted the glory of the lad's future life.

In 1526, Calvin became a member of Montaign College, one of the

theological institutes of the university. His classical pursuits were continued, and to these he added logic, dialectics, and philosophy. He commenced also the study of theology, according to the fashion of the times not in the Word of God, but in the writings of the schoolmen. Duns Scotus, Bonaventura, and Thomas Aquinas were his favourite authors. He perused them with great zest, and would doubtless have become a profound scholastic, had he persevered in that line of inquiry.

But in the year 1527 a great change took place. Ten years had elapsed since Luther began his conflict with the Papacy. The results of his efforts, and of those of Zwingli and others in Switzerland, were known in France, and the new doctrines were talked of everywhere. Some approved; some condemned; some wondered at what they heard, and were greatly perplexed by the opposing statements of the dispu

tants.

At first, Calvin was indignant, for he was at that time a true son of the Church, and in his eyes it was a sin to think otherwise than as the Church taught, or to doubt her

So

authority. Pierre Olivétan, afterwards a celebrated translator of the Scriptures into French, showed him. a more excellent way. He took pure biblical ground, arguing that the final appeal must be to the Word of God, and exhorting his young friend to examine the sacred page for himself, in order to find out the truth. reasonable did this appear that the advice was followed. Calvin became a Bible student. He had not proceeded far in his search when his mind was filled with great anxiety and distress, arising from pungent convictions of sin. Such views of his iniquities he had never had before. Fearfulness and terror seized him. He sought the aid of a confessor, who gave him absolution; but the agony returned with accumulated force, and he seemed as one sinking into the "horrible pit and the miry clay." The help of another confessor was implored, from whom he received the very unsatisfactory direction to invoke the saints, in the hope that they would represent and recommend his case to God. Painful struggles ensued, but at length the distressed soul found peace in Jesus, and being "justified by faith" entered at once into light, and liberty, and joy. Calvin became a Christian, and could exclaim with the Apostle, "God forbid that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by whom the world is crucified unto me, and I unto the world." In the autumn of the year he went to Orleans to study the law, in deference to his father's wishes, who now thought that worldly advancement might be more easily obtained in that connection. There, also, he shot ahead of his companions, and was universally acknowledged to be one of the most promising students in the university. Melchior Wolmar, a celebrated professor of Greek, and an eminently pious man, was teach

ing there at that time. Under him Calvin resumed his classical studies, and experienced also a remarkable development of Christian character. It could not be hid. Sympathising believers learned his history, and gained his friendship, and many an evening did he spend with them, conversing on religion, and offering explanations of Scripture. His talent in that department of instruction soon revealed itself, and attracted general attention.

Next year he was at Bourges, studying law in the university of that city under the learned professor Alciat. Wolmar had also removed thither, and he profited again by his instructions. There, too, he engaged in evangelical labour. The inhabitants of many villages in the neighbourhood of Bourges heard from his lips the soul-comforting truths of the Gospel, and it is said that once, at least, he preached in a parish church. While on a hasty visit home he officiated in the same manner in the Church of Pont l'Eveque, the second of the livings which had been given to him. Returning to Paris, he spent three more years in study at first, in the languages, law, and philosophy; finally, renouncing all other pursuits, he gave himself entirely to theology and to God. The secret assemblies of the godly were assiduously attended, and there was a constant demand for his services. During all this time he was providentially under training for the great work which he was to perform at Geneva, and at Geneva for Europe.

Driven from Paris by persecution, he traversed various country districts of France, doing the work of an evangelist. In 1534 he resigned the offices which he held in the Church, finding that separation from it was a duty no longer to be delayed, and that if he would serve God according to his Word, it must

be in union with those by whom that word was held as supreme authority. Early in the next year he was at Orleans, where he published his second work, entitled "Psychopannychia," a treatise in confutation of those who maintained that the soul sleeps from death till the resurrection:-his first, an edition. of Seneca "De Clementià," with a learned Commentary, had been issued from the press at Paris in 1532. Proceeding thence to Basle, he resided in that city a year or more. There he learned the Hebrew language, and there he wrote and published the first edition of his celebrated "Institutes "-a very extraordinary production for so young a man (he had not completed his twenty-seventh year), indicating a breadth and depth of thought, and a maturity of judgment, rarely obtained.

Having visited his native place for the purpose of attending to some family affairs, Calvin intended to return to Basle, and to settle for a time there, or at Strasburg, waiting the guidance of God as to his future movements. The disturbed state of the country rendered it unsafe for him to take the ordinary route, and he was compelled to travel round by Geneva. This was in August, 1536. His arrival was soon made known to Farel, the eminent Reformer, by whose means, principally, the inhabitants of Geneva had been induced to free themselves from the yoke of Romanism, and who had laboured among them upwards of a year, amid many difficulties and discouragements. He hastened to the inn and obtained an interview with Calvin, to whom he gave full information respecting the state of affairs, concluding with an earnest request that he would remain and take part in the great work. Calvin shrunk from the responsibility of

such an undertaking. He could not think himself competent to it. Besides, it was rather his vocation to write books than to enter upon such a stormy life as would await him at Geneva. He must proceed to Strasburg, and give himself to study. But Farel had determined to secure him. As if impelled by a prophetic instinct, he solemnly assured the young man that it was a call from God, which he would disobey at his peril; and that if he withdrew into privacy at such a time a heavy curse would rest upon him. "William Farel," he observed twenty-one years afterwards, " detained me at Geneva, not so much by counsel and exhortation, as by a dreadful imprecation, which I felt to be as if God had from heaven laid His mighty hand upon me to arrest me."

He was immediately appointed Professor of Theology, and one of the pastors of the city. He entered on his new employments with characteristic ardour, and soon achieved a high reputation. His lectures and sermons were listened to, with deep attention, and his church was crowded with hearers, who were attracted, not by flimsy declamation or tinsel eloquence, but by truth, clearly explained, forcibly defended, and urged on the conscience by the weightiest motives. They admired and praised him, and Geneva was envied by her neighbours for the possession of such a prize. This pleasing state of affairs lasted, however, but two years. Calvin and Farel longed for a pure church, but did not find it in Geneva. Laxity of manners, and immorality in some of its most disgusting forms, prevailed to an alarming extent. The preachers lifted up their voices in vain against the abominations of the place. Their remonstrances were disregarded; their entreaties failed of effect; and to other sources of disquiet were added

the animosities of opposing factions. At length the disorders rose to such a pitch that it was deemed a profanation of the Lord's Supper to administer it to a community in so deplorable a condition. Advantage was taken of this resolve to excite the fury of those who were already sufficiently embittered, and in 1538, Calvin, Farel, and Courault (a blind minister, worthily associated with them in labour) were banished-not for crime, but because they would not defile their consciences by communion with sin.

Calvin fixed his residence at Strasburg, where he was received with great joy. He lectured on theology to large classes of students. The French Church in that city being committed to his care, he organised the congregation meeting there, in agreement with his views of church polity. An enlarged and improved edition of the "Institutes" was published. Twice he visited Germany in company with other divines and delegates, in order to watch over Protestant interests, and ward off threatening attacks. His attendance at the Diets of Worms and Ratisbon gave him the opportunity of becoming acquainted with Melancthon, and many other German theologians.

Geneva discovered that the expulsion of Calvin was a blunder, a disgrace, and a loss not to be easily repaired. A desire for his return began to prevail, which increased and strengthened till all opposition vanished, and a vote was unanimously passed, by which he was entreated to resume his former functions. He was not at first disposed to comply, having obtained a comfortable settlement at Strasburg, a quieter place than Geneva, and freer from faction and turmoil, where he had also married, and hoped that the leisure for literary pursuits which he

had long desired would be graced and gladdened by domestic comforts. But the earnestness of the solicitation, together with the advice of many brethren, overcame his repugnance, and on the 13th of September, 1541, he re-entered Geneva.

A brief sketch may be given of the manifold and burdensome engagements which occupied his time, and employed his powers, during the remainder of his life.

His first care was to establish ecclesiastical regulations. The Presbyterian mode of government was substantially adopted, the ministers, six in number, together with twelve laymen, constituting a Consistory, to which body was committed the entire management of religious affairs, including the excommunication of persons convicted of immoral practices or of infractions of Church order. Calvin acted as president, and was the guiding spirit. A Catechism and a Liturgy were prepared by him for the use of the congregations, and he exerted himself to the utmost to maintain purity of communion. That was the greatest difficulty he had to encounter. It involved him in perpetual perplexity and annoyance.

As Professor of Theology and chief pastor of the city, his duties were necessarily numerous and weighty. Besides the ordinary services on the Lord's Day, he preached three times in the week. On two other days he delivered Theological Lectures. Once in the week he met the Consistory. Many other engagements arising out of the pastoral relation, especially the visitation of families, and the care of the sick and afflicted, engaged his attention, and consumed his time.

Law, as well as Gospel employed Calvin's powers. A revision of the code of legislation being judged advisable, the Council appointed him one of the Commissioners for that purpose. The advantages gained by

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