as the Possessive cases of the Personal Pronouns, or as Possessive Adjective Pronouns (see 116.).

123.-2. The Distributive Pronouns denote the persons or things that make up a number, considered separately. They are each, every, either, neither; as, "Each man in his order." (See Syntax.)

124.-3. The Demonstrative Pronouns precisely point out the objects to which they refer. They are this, these; that, those; yon, the former, the latter, such, the

same.

This denotes a near object, that refers to one a little further removed, and yon to one still more distant.

125.-4. The Indefinite Pronouns denote no particular number or quantity. They are any, many, few, some, several, much; all, no, none; other, another, and one used indefinitely.

a. Any is sometimes used indefinitely for one; as, "If the soul shall sin against any of the commandments;"-sometimes, for some; as, "Who will show us any good?" - sometimes, for every one; as, " Any body can do that."

b. Many, few, several, denote number; as, “many men."- Some is applied both to number and quantity; as, "some men;" "some wheat." Several signifies more than two, but not a great many; some denotes a larger number than several. Much denotes quantity; as, much money."

c. All denotes the whole, whether quantity or number; as, "All the corn;" "all the men."- No is used before a noun, none without one; as, "No man ;" "I have seen none."- None is used in both numbers.

d. Other signifies the second of two objects. Another is an and other. - Other takes a plural when used without a substantive, and is thus declined:

Sing. Nom. Other,
Poss.

Other's,

Obj. Other.

Plur. Nom. Others,

Poss. Others',
Obj. Others.

e. One, when not a numeral, is used as a Pronoun in the sense of any man, as, "One would imagine that he had spoken this in jest." One is sometimes used as a substitute for some noun understood, and will have the regular cases; as, "Every one has his peculiar habits." "The great ones of the earth." Sometimes, however, one, other, and similar words appear to possess the nature of substantives, when, in reality, they are only definitives, having nouns understood; as, "Virtue and vice are different in their nature and consequences; the one (quality understood) leads to happiness, the other (quality) to misery.”

126. Each other, one another are considered Reciprocal Pronouns, because they denote the mutual influence of different agents upon each other.

Each other refers to two; one another refers to more than two.

5.-VERBS.

LESSON 24.

127. a. A Verb is a word which affirms or expresses the state, action, or suffering of some person or thing; as, "I am;" "I teach;" "I am taught."

b. A verb is also used to command, exhort, entreat, request, or ask a question as, "Be silent;" Study diligently ;' Spare me;" "Lend me the book;' "Have you written the letter ? "

c. As the principal characteristic of the verb is Affirmation, when we speak, we must speak of something, the thing of which we speak is called the subject; that which we say or affirm respecting the subject is the verb; thus, "John reads his book." Here, John is the subject, and reads the verb.

d. A verb may generally be distinguished by its making sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to before it; as, I hear, he studies, they talk; or, to hear, to study, to talk.

128. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive or Active, and Intransitive or Neuter.

129. a. A Transitive or Active verb expresses action passing from an agent or doer to some object; as, “The master teaches me."

b. The term transitive signifies passing over.

c. The doer of an action is called the agent, and the thing to which the action passes over is called the object, a term signifying laid in the way. Thus, in the phrase, "The master teaches me," master is the doer or agent, and me the object. d. The object of a transitive verb is sometimes understood; as, " John calls ;" me, him, &c., being understood.

e. Transitives, not having their objects expressed, frequently imply habits; as, "Thomas reads and writes well."

f. A few verbs, originally active, are sometimes applied in a neuter sense; as, "The cloth tears," that is, is capable of being torn; "the pain shoots," that is, passes rapidly from one part to another.

130. An Intransitive Verb expresses either no action at all, but simply the state of the nominative; as, “I am;" "I stand;" or action confined to the agent; as, "I

run.

a. Intransitive means not passing over.

b. Sometimes an intransitive verb becomes, by the addition of a preposition, what is termed a compound transitive; thus," She smiles," is intransitive; but, "She smiles on him," is transitive, and in this sense may become passive; as, "He is smiled on."

c. Some verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense; the construction only determining to which kind they belong.

d. In a few colloquial phrases, some verbs originally neuter assume an active import; thus, " To grow flowers," "to walk a horse.' These may be resolved

into

to cause or make flowers grow, and a horse run.

131. Transitive Verbs have two Voices, Active and Passive.

Voice has been styled the Active or Passive expression of a Transitive Verb.

132. The Active Voice expresses action passing from an agent to some object; as, "The Master teaches me."

133. The Passive Voice denotes that the nominative is acted upon by some agent, and is formed by the perfect participle of a transitive verb and some tense of the verb to be; as, "John is taught by the master."

134. Intransitive Verbs have no Passive Voice.

Instead, therefore, of saying "I am come,' ""he is come," we should say, "I have

135. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are divided into Regular and Irregular.

136. A Regular verb is one that forms its past tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the Present; as, Present, love; Past, loved; Perfect Participle, loved.

137. An Irregular verb is one that does not form its past tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the present; as, Present, arise; Past, arose; Perfect Participle, arisen.

As

a. In the formation of the Past Tense and Perfect Participle, it must be observed, that in some verbs the radical vowels are changed, and the Perfect Participle ends in en; in others, the unaccented syllable ed is added to the verb. the great majority of our verbs are formed in the latter manner, they are properly termed Regular; while those formed by changing the radical vowel, are termed Irregular verbs.

b. Several modern writers, imitating the nomenclature of the German grammarians, have styled the formation of the Past Tenses and Perfect Participles made by the addition of ed, the weak conjugation; and that made by modifying the vowel sound, the strong conjugation. No advantage whatever is gained by the adoption of these terms; I shall, therefore, retain as preferable the usual designation of Regular and Irregular Verbs.

138. There are also Defective, Monopersonal, and Auxiliary Verbs.

139. A Defective verb is one that is used only in some of the moods and tenses; its other parts having fallen into disuse. The Defective verbs are the following: Present. May, can, shall, will, must, ought. Past. Might, could, should, would, must, ought, quoth.

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140. A Monopersonal (Impersonal) verb is one that is used only in the third person singular; as, It rains;" "It hails."

A finite Verb is a verb in any mood except the Infinitive.

141. a. Auxiliary or helping verbs are such as are employed chiefly in forming the moods and tenses of other verbs. With the exception of Do, be, have, and will (denoting determination), they are defective, having only the present and past Indicative; thus,

Present. Do, am, have, shall, will, may, can, must. Past. Did, was, had, should, would, might, could, must.

b. Do, be, have, and will (determination), when unconnected with other verbs, either expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries but principal verbs, and have the present and perfect participles complete; as, "He does as he pleases;" "Being present, he voted."

142. The properties of Verbs are Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.

Moods.

LESSON 25.

143. The Mood of a verb is the particular form which it assumes, in order to express the manner in which an action or state, is represented.

a. In Greek and Latin, Moods and Tenses are formed chiefly (not exclusively) by a change of termination. In English, however, they are formed partly by the variations which the Simple Verb undergoes, but principally by the combination of two or more words. The existing mode of arranging the English verbs has doubtlessly been suggested by the clearness and convenience with which the different parts can thus be more easily explained, and more accurately applied.

b. Were Inflection to be considered, as some grammarians assert, the sole characteristic of mood, tense, voice, and case, then we should be reduced to one mood, namely, the Indicative; two tenses, the present and past; one voice, and two cases. But this mode would materially increase the difficulty of obtaining a correct knowledge of those forms and combinations of speech, which a just and natural classification tends so vividly to exhibit. The observations of Mr. Smart ou this subject are so appropriate that I shall here subjoin them: "If by mood we are to understand inflections of the individual theme to signify modifications of its meaning, then it is certain that our verbs have no moods; but if a dividual expression may be deemed a mood, then nave our verbs all the moods which may be found in any other language, and in all languages put together. The point is not worth disputing. As a practical question, grammarians have settled it by assigning to our verbs as many moods as they have found convenient; and these are, the Indicative, the Imperative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Infinitive."

c. The Moods of Verbs show that a person has performed, will perform, or does perform, an action; or, secondly, that he may or can perform it, or ought to perform it; or, thirdly, that it is doubtful whether he will or will not perform it; or, fourthly, that he has a right or authority to entreat or command some other person to perform it; or, fifthly, that the action requires only its bare exhibition, without any regard to an agent.

144. There are generally reckoned five moods; the Indicative, Imperative, Potential, Subjunctive, and Infinitive.

"He

145. The Indicative Mood affirms, in a direct and positive manner, respecting an action or event; as, teaches;" "He is taught;" or, it asks a question; as, "Does he teach?" "Is he taught?"

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146. The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, entreats, or requests; as, "Go;" " study diligently;' spare me;" "'" let us go."

147. The Potential Mood implies the possibility or liberty, power, inclination, or duty to do or suffer an action, and is known by the signs may, can, might, could, would, should, put before the verb; as, "It may rain," &c.

a. This mood, also, is used in asking questions; as, " May I write?" "Can you read?" May and might denote the possibility of doing a thing; can and could

b. The Potential (corresponding, in general, with the French Conditional) was introduced into English by our earlier Grammarians, in imitation of the prevailing arrangement of Latin verbs. The verbs usually considered as signs of the Potential Mood have sometimes a strictly assertive import; and, in such instances, would, if translated, have a corresponding influence upon the subsequent verbs. But, for all practical purposes, they may in English be considered as mere signs of this mood.

148. The Subjunctive (or Conjunctive) Mood implies a condition, supposition, or uncertainty respecting an action or event, and is always preceded by a conjunction expressed or understood, and followed by another verb; as, "If he study he will improve."

a. The Subjunctive (from subjungĕre, to subjoin) is so called because it is subjoined to another clause to render the meaning of the sentence complete; as, "If he come I will go:" here, "if he come" expresses the condition upon which "I will go." So, If he study, he will improve:" the conditional clause is, "if he study;" and the consequence is, "he will improve."

b. When no condition, supposition, or uncertainty is implied, but the sense is positive and absolute, the verb is not considered in the subjunctive, though it may be preceded by a conjunction; as, "Though he hears, he does not attend:" here, the verb hears, being positive, is considered in the Indicative. "Though he is rich, he conducts himself with humility:" here, the verb is is in the Indicative.

c. The subjoined observations will exhibit the proper import of the Subjunctive in its different Tenses:

1. The Present Tense is employed to indicate a present uncertainty or condition: as, "If it rains;""If he is poor; " "If he is honourable;" "If John lives; "If he is my brother;" "If he acts with propriety, he enjoys inward peace." In all these instances, an uncertainty is indicated respecting something which either does or does not exist at this moment, but of which I am in doubt.

2. The Past Tense is employed to express an uncertainty respecting an action or event which, if it has existed at all, must now be past: as, "If Cæsar was a tyrant;""If Alexander did conquer India; "If Napoleon was banished for his crimes; ""If the man was injured, restitution must be made;' In all these instances the Past Tense is properly employed.

3. The Future Tense is employed to denote a future contingency: thus, "If he be (hereafter) our king, he will study the interests of his people;"" If he offer himself a candidate, he will succeed." "Unless he acknowledge his fault, he will not be forgiven."

4. The Suppositional Tense (a term employed merely to distinguish it from the past was) denotes an action or event which, if it ever happen, must happen at some subsequent period: thus," Were he in power, he would inclose the waste lands." This evidently shows that he is not at present in power. "Were he honourable, he would pay his debts," implies that he is not honourable.

5. The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated precisely in the same way as the Indicative, when it denotes present or past uncertainty: thus,

Present:-"If he is poor, deal with him gently:" here, either he is or is not poor, but the fact is unknown to me; the Present is, therefore, employed. So, If thou art sincere, act accordingly."

Past:-"If he was present, he certainly voted:" here, if the action existed at all, it must have been in past time. So," If thou wast angry at the event, thou didst err."

A Future contingency is expressed, 1st, either by employing the verb without any change of termination; as, "If thou hear any tidings," "If it rain to-morrow;" or, 2ndly, by employing the auxiliaries shall, should, could, would, &c., with the proper variations for each person: thus, "If thou shalt or shouldst hear any tidings; ""If it should rain to-morrow; 39 "If thou canst attend;" "If thou couldst go." The employment of the verb without the auxiliaries is the more general mode of expressing the Future Subjunctive.

149. The Infinitive Mood (does not assert, but) simply exhibits the action, suffering, or state of being, without