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conviction or belief of their own regarding it at all; who walked merely by hearsays, traditionary cants, black and white surplices, and inane confusions; whose whole existence, accordingly, was a grimace; nothing original in it, nothing genuine or sincere but this only, their greediness of appetite, and their faculty of digestion. Such unhappy ages, too numerous here below, the genius of mankind indignantly seizes as disgraceful to the family, and with Rhadamanthine ruthlessness annihilates; tumbles large masses of them swiftly into eternal night. These are the unheroic ages, which can not serve on the general field of existence, except as dust, as inorganic manure. The memory of such ages fades away for ever out of the minds of all men. Why should any memory of them continue? The fashion of them has passed away; and as for genuine substance, they never had any. To no heart of a man any more can these ages become lovely. What melodious loving heart will search into their records, will sing of them, or celebrate them? Even torpid Dryasdust is forced to give over at last; all creatures declining to hear him on that subject: whereupon ensue composure and silence, and Oblivion has her own.

Good reader, if you be wise, search not for the secret of heroic ages, which have done great things in this earth, among their falsities, their greedy quackeries and unheroisms. It never lies, and never will lie, there. Knaves and quacks-alas! we know they abounded; but the age was heroic, even because it had declared war to the death with these, and would have neither truce nor treaty with these; and went forth, flame-crowned, as with bared sword, and called the Most High to witness that it would not endure these. But now for the letters of Cromwell themselves.

THOMAS DE QUINCEY.

1786-1859.

Author of "The Confessions of an English Opium-Eater;" "Suspiria de Profundis," a sequel to the "Confessions;" and other essays of remarkable eloquence, and beauty of style.

THE PALIMPSEST.

You know perhaps, masculine reader, better than I can tell you, what is a palimpsest: possibly you have one in your own library. But yet, for the sake of others who may not know, or may have forgotten, suffer me to explain it here, lest any female

reader who honors these papers with her notice should tax me with explaining it once too seldom; which would be worse to bear than a simultaneous complaint from twelve proud men, that I had explained it three times too often. You, therefore, fair reader, understand, that for your accommodation exclusively I explain the meaning of this word. It is Greek; and our sex enjoys the office and privilege of standing counsel. to yours in all questions of Greek. We are, under favor, perpetual and hereditary dragomans to you: so that, if by accident you know the meaning of a Greek word, yet, by courtesy to us, your counsel learned in that matter, you will always seem not to know it.

A palimpsest, then, is a membrane, or roll, cleansed of its manuscript by reiterated successions.

What was the reason that the Greeks and the Romans had not the advantage of printed books? The answer will be from ninety-nine persons in a hundred, "Because the mystery of printing was not then discovered." But this is altogether a mistake. The secret of printing must have been discovered many thousands of times before it was used, or could be used. The inventive powers of man are divine; and also his stupidity is divine, as Cowper so playfully illustrates in the slow development of the sofa through successive generations of immortal dullness. It took centuries of blockheads to raise a joint stool into a chair; and it required something like a miracle of genius, in the estimate of elder generations, to reveal the possibility of lengthening a chair into a chaise-longue, or a sofa. Yes, these were inventions that cost mighty throes of intellectual power. But still, as respects printing, and admirable as is the stupidity of man, it was really not quite equal to the task of evading an object which stared him in the face with so broad a gaze. It did not require an Athenian intellect to read the main secret of printing in many scores of processes which the ordinary uses of life were daily repeating. To say nothing of analogous artifices amongst various mechanic artisans, all that is essential in printing must have been known to every nation that struck coins and medals. Not, therefore, any want of a printing art, that is, of an art for multiplying impressions, but the want of a cheap material for receiving such impressions, was the obstacle to an introduction of printed books, even as early as Pisistratus. The ancients did apply printing to records of silver and gold: to marble, and many other substances cheaper than gold and silver, they did not, since each monument required a separate effort of inscription. Simply this defect it was- of a cheap material for receiving impresses which froze in its very fountains the early resources of printing.

Some twenty years ago, this view of the case was luminously expounded by Dr. Whately, the present Archbishop of Dublin,

and with the merit, I believe, of having first suggested it. Since then, this theory has received indirect confirmation. Now, out of that original scarcity affecting all materials proper for durable books, which continued up to times comparatively modern, grew the opening for palimpsests. Naturally, when once a roll of parchment or of vellum had done its office, by propagating through a series of generations what once had possessed an interest for them, but which, under changes of opinion or of taste, had faded to their feelings, or had become obsolete for their undertakings, the whole membrana, or vellum-skin, — the twofold product of human skill, costly material, and costly freight of thought which it carried, drooped in value concurrently, supposing that each were inalienably associated to the other. Once it had been the impress of a human mind which stamped its value upon the vellum: the vellum, though costly, had contributed but a secondary element of value to the total result. At length, however, this relation between the vehicle and its freight has gradually been undermined. The vellum, from having been the setting of the jewel, has risen at length to be the jewel itself: and the burden of thought, from having given the chief value to the vellum, has now become the chief obstacle to its value; nay, has totally extinguished its value, unless it can be dissociated from the connection. Yet if this unlinking can be effected, then, fast as the inscription upon the membrane is sinking into rubbish, the membrane itself is reviving in its separate importance; and, from bearing a ministerial value, the vellum has come at last to absorb the whole value.

Hence the importance for our ancestors that the separation should be effected. Hence it arose in the middle ages, as a considerable object for chemistry, to discharge the writing from the roll, and thus to make it available for a new succession of thoughts. The soil, if cleansed from what once had been hothouse plants, but now were held to be weeds, would be ready to receive a fresh and more appropriate crop. In that object the monkish chemist succeeded, but after a fashion which seems almost incredible, incredible not as regards the extent of their success, but as regards the delicacy of restraints under which it moved; so equally adjusted was their success to the immediate interests of that period and to the reversionary objects of our own. They did the thing, but not so radically as to prevent us their posterity from undoing it. They expelled the writing sufficiently to leave a field for the new manuscript, and yet not sufficiently to make the traces of the elder manuscript irrecoverable for us. Could magic, could Hermes Trismegistus, have done more? What would you think, fair reader, of a problem such as this?-to write a book which should be sense for your

own generation, nonsense for the next, should revive into sense for the next after that, but again become nonsense for the fourth; and so on by alternate successions, sinking into night or blazing into day, like the Sicilian river Arethusa, and the English river Mole; or like the undulating motions of a flattened stone which children cause to skim the breast of a river, now diving below the water, now grazing its surface, sinking heavily into darkness, rising buoyantly into light, through a long vista of alternations. Such a problem, you say, is impossible. But really it is a problem not harder, apparently, than to bid a generation kill, but so that a subsequent generation may call back into life; bury, but so that posterity may command to rise again. Yet that was what the rude chemistry of past ages effected when coming into combination with the re-action from the more refined chemistry of our own. Had they been better chemists, had we been worse, the mixed result—namely, that, dying for them, the flower should revive for us· - could not have been effected. They did the thing proposed to them; they did it effectually; for they founded upon it all that was wanted: and yet ineffectually, since we unraveled their work, effacing all above which they had superscribed, restoring all below which they had effaced.

Here, for instance, is a parchment which contained some Grecian tragedy, the "Agamemnon" of Eschylus or the "Phoenissa" of Euripides. This had possessed a value almost inappreciable in the eyes of accomplished scholars, continually growing rarer through generations. But four centuries are gone by since the destruction of the Western Empire. Christianity, with towering grandeurs of another class, has founded a different empire; and some bigoted yet perhaps holy monk has washed away (as he persuades himself) the heathen's tragedy, replacing it with a monastic legend; which legend is disfigured with fables in its incidents, and yet in a higher sense is true, because interwoven with Christian morals, and with the sublimest of Christian revelations. Three, four, five centuries more find man still devout as ever: but the language has become obsolete; and even for Christian devotion a new era has arisen, throwing it into the channel of crusading zeal or of chivalrous enthusiasm. The membrana is wanted now for a knightly romance, - for "my Cid," or Cœur de Lion; for Sir Tristrem, or Lybæus Disconus. In this way, by means of the imperfect chemistry known to the mediaval period, the same roll has served as a conservatory for three separate generations of flowers and fruits; all perfectly different, and yet all specially adapted to the wants of the successive possessors. The Greek tragedy, the monkish legend, the knightly romance, each has ruled its own period. One harvest after another has been gathered into the garners of man through ages

far apart; and the same hydraulic machinery has distributed, through the same marble fountains, water, milk, or wine, according to the habits and training of the generations that came to quench their thirst.

Such were the achievements of rude monastic chemistry. But the more elaborate chemistry of our own days has reversed all these motions of our simple ancestors, which results in every stage that to them would have realized the most fantastic amongst the promises of thaumaturgy. Insolent vaunt of Paracelsus, that he would restore the original rose or violet out of the ashes settling from its combustion! - that is now rivaled in this modern achievement. The traces of each successive handwriting, regularly effaced, as had been imagined, have, in the inverse order, been regularly called back; the footsteps of the game pursued — wolf or stag in each several chase have been unlinked, and hunted back through all their doubles: and as the chorus of the Athenian stage unwove through the antistrophe every step that had been mystically woven through the strophe, so, by our modern conjurations of science, secrets of ages remote from each other have been exorcised from the accumulated shadows of centuries. Chemistry, a witch as potent as the Erictho of Lucanto (“Pharsalia," lib. vi. or vii.), has extorted by her torments from the dust and ashes of forgotten centuries the secrets of a life extinct for the general eye, but still glowing in the embers. Even the fable of the phoenix- that secular bird, who propagated his solitary existence and his solitary births along the line of centuries through eternal relays of funeral mists -is but a type of what we have done with palimpsests. We have backed upon each phoenix in the long regressus, and forced him to expose his ancestral phoenix sleeping in the ashes below his own ashes. Our good old forefathers would have been aghast at our sorceries; and, if they speculated on the propriety of burning Dr. Faustus, us they would have burned by acclamation. Trial there would have been none; and they could not otherwise have satisfied their horror of the brazen profligacy marking our modern magic than by plowing up the houses of all who had been parties to it, and sowing the ground with salt.

Fancy not, reader, that this tumult of images, illustrative or allusive, moves under any impulse or purpose of mirth. It is but the coruscation of a restless understanding, often made ten times more so by irritation of the nerves, such as you will first learn to comprehend (its how and its why) some stage or two ahead. The image, the memorial, the record, which for me is derived from a palimpsest, as to one great fact in our human being, and which immediately I will show you, is but too repellent of laughter; or, even if laughter had been possible, it would have been such