turned, as were equal in value to the manufactures produced. This appears from hence, that the manufacturer does not, in fact, obtain from the employer, for his labour, more than a mere fubfiftence, including raiment, fuel and shelter; all which derive their value from the provifions confumed in procuring them. 7. The produce of the earth, thus converted into manufactures, may be more easily carried to distant markets than before fuch converfion. 8. Fair commerce is, where equal values are exchanged for equal, the expence of transport included. Thus, if it costs A in England as much labour and charge to raise a bushel of wheat, as it cofts B in France to produce four gallons of wine, then are four gallons of wine the fair exchange for a bushel of wheat, A and B meeting at half distance with their commodities to make the exchange. The advantage of this fair commerce is, that each party increases the number of his enjoyments, having, inftead of wheat alone, or wine alone, the use of both wheat and wine. 9. Where the labour and expence of producing, both commodities are known to both parties,. bargains will generally be fair and equal. Where they are known to one party only, bargains will often be unequal, knowledge taking its advantage. of ignorance. 10. Thus he that carries 1000 bushels of wheat abroad to fell, may not probably obtain fo great a proât thereon, as if he had first turned the wheat into manufactures, by fubfifting there with with the workmen while producing thofe manufactures fince there are many expediting and facilitating methods of working, not generally known; and ftrangers to the manufactures, though they know pretty well the expence of raifing wheat, are unacquainted with those short methods of working, and thence being apt to fuppofe more labour employed in the manufactures than there really is, are more eafily impofed on in their value, and induced to allow more for them than they are honestly worth. II. Thus the advantage of having manufactures in a country, does not confift, as is commonly fuppofed, in their highly advancing the value of rough materials, of which they are formed; fince, though fix-pennyworth of flax may be worth twenty fhillings when worked into lace, yet the very cause of its being worth twenty fhillings is, that, befides the flax, it has coft nineteen fhillings and fixpence in fubfiftence to the manufacturer. But the advantage of manufactures is, that under their fhape provisions may be more eafily carried to a foreign market; and by their means our traders may more eafily cheat ftrangers. Few, where it is not made, are judges of the value of lace. The importer may demand forty, and perhaps get thirty fhillings for that which coft him but twenty. 12. Finally, there feem to be but three ways for a nation to acquire wealth. The firft is by war, as the Romans did, in plundering their con quered quered neighbours. This is robbery.-The fecond by commerce, which is, generally cheating.-The third by agriculture, the only honest way; wherein man receives a real increase of the feed thrown into the ground, in a kind of continual miracle wrought by the hand of God in his favour, as a reward for his innocent life, and his virtuous industry. April 4, 1769. B. F. POLITICAL POLITICAL FRAGMENTS; fuppofed either to be written by Dr. Franklin, or to contain fentiments nearly allied to his own*. [§ 1. Of the Employment of Time, and of Indolence; particularly as refpecting the State.] A LL that live must be fubfifted. Subfiftence cofts fomething. He that is industrious produces, by his industry, fomething that is an equivalent, and pays for his fubfiftence: he is therefore no charge or burden to fociety. The indolent are an expence uncompenfated. There can be no doubt but all kinds of employment that can be followed without prejudice from interruptions; work that can be taken up, and laid down, often in a day, without damage; (fuch as fpinning, knitting, weaving, &c.) are highly advantageous to a community; because, in them, may be collected all the produce of those fragments of time, that occur in family-bufinefs, between the conftant and neceffary parts of it, that [The political fragments which are here prefented to the reader, were gathered up from the notes, annexed to a pamphlet called The Principles of Trade, printed for Brotherton and Sewel, London, 1774, fecond edition.-The writer of this work speaks of affistance lent to him, in the following paffage in his preface. Some very refpectable friends have indulged me with their ideas and opinions. It is with the greatest pleasure we in this fecond edition moft gratefully acknowledge the favour; and must add, that should the public hold this performance in any eftimation, no small share belongs to thofe friends.' Our author is one of the refpectable friends here alluded to. E. ] ufually ufually occupy females; as the time between rifing and preparing for breakfast, between breakfast and preparing for dinner, &c. &c. The amount of all these fragments, is, in the course of a year, very confiderable to a fingle family; to a state proportionably. Highly profitable therefore it is, in this cafe alfo, to follow that divine direction, gather up the fragments that nothing be loft. Loft time is loft fubfiftence; it is therefore loft treafure. Hereby in feveral families, many yards of linen have been produced from the employment of those fragments only, in one year, though fuch families were just the fame in number as when not fo employed. It was an excellent faying of a certain Chinese Emperor, I will, it poffible, have no idleness in my dominions; for if there be one man idle, fome other man must fuffer cold or hunger. We take this Emperor's meaning to be, that the labour due to the public by each individual, not being performed by the indolent, muft naturally fall to the fhare of others, who must thereby fuffer. I§ 2. Of Embargoes upon Corn, and of the Poor.] In inland high countries, remote from the fea, and whofe rivers are fmall, running from the country, and not to it, as is the cafe of Switzerland; great distress may arife from a courfe of bad harvefts, if public granaries are not provided, and kept well stored. Anciently too, before naviga H tion |