&c.; these are much more numerous in kind than marmalades or jams.

Besides the compounds mentioned in the last paragraph, there are many others to which the attention of the confectioner is directed. Preserved fruits consist of the scarcely ripe fruit, boiled with sugar until the pulp has become thoroughly saturated with the saccharine agent; apricots, peaches, nectarines, figs, greengages, damsons, gooseberries, melons, lemons, oranges, pine-apples, cherries, grapes, currants, barberries, raspberries, pears, quinces, &c.. as well as cucumbers, gherkins, orange or lemon peel, angelica, erin ço, and ginger, may be thus treated. Compôtes bear some resemblance to the preserved fruits just noticed. Brandy fruits are fruits in which brandy as well as sugar is employed as a preserver. Bottled fruits are preserved in wide-mouthed bottles, and have undergone a careful process, by which air and moisture have as much as possible been removed from them. Fruit waters, for beverage, such as lemonade, raspberry-water, &c., in most cases consist of the juice of the fruit, treated with water, syrup, and lemon-juice. Ices are sweetened compounds which have been exposed to the action of a freezing mixture; they are made from a large variety of fruits and vegetable substances, and are classed into ice-creams and ice-waters, according to their consistence-some few being ice-custards. A good deal of apparatus, and much practical skill, are required for making ices. Essences such as those of lemon, orange, bergamot, allspice, clove, vanilla, &c.-consist of the volatile or essential oils of fruits and other vegetable substances, extracted by means of spirits of wine, with or without distillation. A skilful confectioner possesses a wide range of knowledge in the treatment of liquids. He can distil or obtain spirit from various vegetable substances; he can extract the essential oils; he can prepare distilled waters, such as rose-water, cinnamon-water, &c. ; he can make the numerous liqueurs, such as maraschino, kirchwasser, curaçoa, &c., by a peculiar application of spirit of wine to vegetable substances; or ratafias, which differ from liqueurs chiefly in being filtered and sweetened instead of distilled. A peculiar part of the confectioner's trade is that which appeals to the eye, not to the sense of taste. He has to prepare table-ornaments, that may present much grace and beauty though cheap in the materials. He must know how to make gum-paste for ornaments; to prepare a paste that will bear to receive gold or colours on its surface; to form papier-mâché into rocks for a pièce montée, or into vases, &c.; to design complicated table ornaments, in which some knowledge of architecture and of sculpture may come to his aid; to lay his plans so that the parts of his temples, &c., not intended to be eaten may be made of cork, papier mâché, flock, paper, or gum paste, while the rest may comprise any of the sweetmeats which it is his trade to produce. The confectioner must also know how to prepare colours, and to combine them with his confections in proper kind and degree.

When the confectioner makes cakes and other articles in which flour is used, and which require the process of baking in an oven, he does so as a pastry cook, not as a confectioner.

The cheap confectionary now so largely sold in England has long been suspected of being adulterated; the price at which it is sold not being sufficient to pay for an honest course of dealing. Plaster and other substances are often used with the sugar; and poisonous dyestuffs or pigments are used as colouring agents. Cases have been reported by medical practitioners, of children being poisoned by eating such sweetmeats. Towards the close of the year 1858, about twenty persons died, and two hundred were more or less injured, in and near Bradford, in Yorkshire, by eating sweetmeats; the maker thought he was using "daff," an adulterating preparation of plaster of Paris, as a cheap substitute for sugar; instead of which, through a mistake at a druggist's shop, he was using white arsenic.

An ingenious machine for making lozenges has lately been introduced by Messrs. Chase of Birmingham. A ball of prepared sugar, flavoured with the vegetable ingredient which may be selected, is worked up to the consistence of soft dough, and rolled on a board to the thickness of ordinary pie-crust. It is then laid upon a band, which carries it between a pair of rollers, after which it is flattened and passed through other rollers, until reduced to the thickness of a lozenge. The thin layer goes again upon the band, and is by it conveyed underneath a row of stamps. These stamps bear a motto, name, or other device, as may be chosen. The layer is then punched out by circular or other shaped cutters, which throw off clean glossy lozenges. The machine can produce three hundred pounds weight of lozenges in an hour. CONFESSION means a solemn acknowledgment of some principle or fact. Hence the early Christians, who suffered imprisonment and other penalties from the Roman magistrates for having publicly declared their belief in the gospel, were called confessors. Others, in later times, acquired the same title from having embraced a life of austerity, or retired to some solitude or convent to do penance for their sins. Confession thus became synonymous with penitence, in which sense both words are understood by the Roman Catholics. The practice of confessing one's sins, either in public before the congregation of the faithful, or privat ly to a priest, dates undoubtedly from the earliest ages of the Church. In those times the Christians, scattered about the Roman world, and exposed to persecution, formed many small communities, living under the discipline of their presbyters, who knew every individual of their respective flocks, the members of which watched carefully over each other's conduct. Any gross irregularity,

or any compliance with heathen rites by one of the flock, was sure to be known to the rest, and the oflender was thereby subject to interdiction from Christian worship and communion. If he wished to be re-admitted to the communion of the Church, he must publicly acknowledge and repent of his guilt, and submit to the penance imposed by the presbyter. This appears to have been the original mode of confession. It does not seem to be clearly determined when the practice of private, or "auricular," was substituted for public, confession. Cyprian, who lived towards the middle of the third century (Epist.,' Rom. 12), defines several kinds of sins for which penance ought to be done before the transgressor could be admitted to the communion; and in his treatise, 'De Lapsis in Persecutionibus,' he exhorts those who have fallen into heathen practices to confess their sins to the ministers of God, and thus unburthen their souls of their weight," because this satisfaction and the remission by the priest are acceptable to God." Tertullian, who lived at the beginning of the same century, says ('De Pœnitentiâ,' ch. ix.) that penitence consists of three parts, confession, contrition, and satisfaction. In the eastern churches the custom of confessing sins before the assembled congregation was prevalent down to the fourth century; but the practice having led to scandal, especially on the occasion of a lady revealing that she had been seduced by a deacon, Nacterius, patriarch of Constantinople, abolished the custom, and removed the poenitentiarius or priest (' qui præpositus erat poenitentiæ') by whose advice the revelation had taken place. (Sozomen, Histor.,' lib. vii.) Some passages in Chrysostom have been urged against the obligatory practice of confession. In Homily 11, he says, "God commands that to him alone we should give account of our conduct, and to him we should confess;" which agrees with the principle and practice of the Protestant and reformed churches. Yet in his Homily of the Samaritan woman, he says, He who blushes now to reveal his sins to a man, and will not confess, at the last day will be arraigned, not before one or two persons, but before the whole world.' In the fifth century, Pope St. Leo I., called the Great (Epist.' Rom. lxxx., ch. v.), says that the priests ought not to enforce "public confession of secret sins," but that it is enough if the penitent confess them privately to a priest. This passage seems to throw some light on the transition from public to private confession. When, and under what circumstances, confession, either public or private, was deemed absolutely necessary for the remission of sins, is another subject of controversy. Innocent III., in the fourth Lateran council, A.D. 1215 (Canon 21), made confession (meaning auricular or private) obligatory upon every adult person once a year, and that continues to be one of the rules of the Roman Catholic church to the present day, which numbers penitence among the sacraments. The Council of Trent, in its catechism, defines it to be "a declaration by the penitent of his sins, made to a priest, in order to receive the penance and absolution." Penitence, therefore, consists of four parts, confession, contrition, absolution, and penance; and it is a positive doctrine of the same Church, that without the concurrence of all these parts or conditions, the sacrament is null and void. The penitent is also obliged to confess all the sins that he can recollect having committed and not confessed before, at least all the mortal sins, for Roman Catholic dogmatists draw a distinction between mortal and venial sins. By contrition it is meant that the penitent should fully repent of his guilt, and form at the same time a firm resolution not to sin again, without which repentance and resolution the absolution of the priest is of no avail, being always conditional upon a corresponding disposition on the part of the penitent. It is not therefore true, as it is often erroneously stated, that the priest can absolve from any sins by merely pronouncing the words, "Ego te absolvo," &c.; it is the penitent who, by his contrition and trust in the merits of the Saviour only, can give effect to the words of the priest, and in this respect the principle is common to all the Christian churches, except the formula of the absolution, which differs in some, while others omit it altogether. [ABSOLUTION] The indispensable condition for obtaining absolution is often explained and inculcated from the pulpits and chairs of theology in Roman Catholic countries, though it happens of course that ignorant or weak people overlook or misconceive the absolute necessity of inward contrition, and think that by merely confessing their sins and reciting the formula of repentance with their lips, they have acquitted themselves of their part, and that the priest can do the rest. Again, the priest absolves "à culpa, sed non à pœnâ;" he removes the guilt, but not the punishment, here or hereafter; and accordingly Roman Catholics admit a purgatory. penance which the priest imposes consists generally of satisfaction to be given if the penitent has injured any one in his property, honour, &c., in a manner that can admit of reparation, and also of prayers, absti nence, or other religious practices to be performed. The secrecy imposed on confessors is strict and unconditional; whatever be the crime of which a penitent may accuse himself, they are solemnly bound to keep it secret, under the most severe denunciations and penalties, both here and hereafter, that of excommunication so far to included. Not withstanding the number of individuals who have exercised the office of confessors all over the Roman Catholic world, and the manifold temptations to which they are exposed, there are few authenticated instances of their having betrayed their trust. That there may be other inconveniences likely to result from private confes ion, is another question, which it is not our business to discuss. Every priest is not a contessor, although every incumbent of a parish is. The qualifications

The

of age, studies, character, &c., required in a candidate for the office of confessor, the solemu engagements he enters into, and the formalities with which he is consecrated by the bishop, may be seen in the professional works of discipline of the church of Rome, and, among others, in the Bibliothèque Sacrée des Pères Richard and Giraud, Paris, 1825, art." Confession" and "Confesseur." The box in which the priest sits in the church to hear the penitent is called the confessional. But the act of confession may be performed out of church, in private houses, in the field, in any place in short, provided it be not within hearing of any person except the priest and the penitent.

The Greek Church retains the practice of auricular confession, but differs from that of Rome in the form of the absolution. The Protestant and Reformed Churches, including those of England and Scotland, do not admit the practice, but recommend every one to confess his sins to God, and to repent in order to obtain forgiveness. Confession is also the name given to the solemn profession of faith of various Christian churches which dissent from that of Rome, such as that of the reformed churches of France, in 40 articles, signed by Henry, king of Navarre, the prince of Condé, Coligny, and others, and presented to Charles IX. in 1561; that of the Helvetic reformed churches proclaimed in 1566 [ZWINGLI, in BIOG. Div.]; that of the churches of the Netherlands, consisting of 37 articles, published in 1562, afterwards approved and signed by the members of the synod of Embden in 1571, and lastly examined and confirmed in 1691 by the synod of Dordrecht, or Dort, which condemned the five articles of Arminius. [ARMINIUS, in BIOG. DIV.]; and also that of the Protestant churches of Poland, printed in 1570 at Debrzin, and afterwards approved at the synod of Sendomir.

The most celebrated is the Confession of Augsburg, the name given to the profession of faith of the Protestant Lutheran Church, which was drawn up by Melancthon, with Luther's approbation, in order to be laid before the Emperor Charles V. at the great Diet held at Augsburg in June, 1530. It was on that occasion solemnly read in the German language by the Chancellor of Saxony, after which two copies of the Confession, one in German and the other in Latin, were delivered to the Emperor, bearing the signatures of John Elector of Saxony, George Marquis of Brandenburg, Ernest Duke of Luneberg, Philip Landgrave of Hesse, and Wolfgang Prince of Anhalt; besides those of the free town of Nuremberg, and other cities. The Confession was immediately afterwards printed, and, being translated into various languages, was spread over Europe. It has ever since continued to be the rule of the Lutheran Church in matters of faith. It consists of twenty-eight articles, twenty-one of which state the belief of the Lutherans on the principal tenets of religion; and the other seven consist of refutations of certain points of either dogma or discipline as maintained by the Roman Catholic Church, and on account of which the Lutherans separated from the communion of Rome. Zwingli and the other Swiss and French reformers did not subscribe to the Confession of Augsburg, as they differed from it on several points, particularly about the Lord's Supper. The style of the Confession is clear and fluent; the matter was chiefly supplied by Luther in the seventeen articles of Torgau, which he had presented to the Elector of Saxony the year before. Melancthon, while drawing up the Confession, had frequent conferences with Luther, who was then staying at Coburg, not far from Augsburg. The Papal theologians, headed by Faber, wrote a confutation of the Augsburg confession, which was likewise read before the Diet in August of the same year. Melancthon answered them in his 'Apology for the Augsburg Confession,' which was published in 1531, and which constitutes one of the books of authority of the Lutherans which were published, including the Confession, at Dresden, in 1580. Ernest Solomon Cyprian has written a good history of the Augsburg Confession, and Webber a Critical History' of the same, Frankfurt, 1783. (Schrockh's Kirchengeschichte;' Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, and Notes,' by Dr. Murdoch; and Neander's Church History.') Some sepulchres of martyrs have been styled by antiquaries confessions; for instance, the subterraneous chapel, in which are the sepulchres of St. Peter and St. Paul, under St. Peter's at Rome, is called "the Confession of St. Peter."

CONFIRMATION is, according to the Church of England, "the rite of laying on of hands upon those who have been baptised, and are come to years of discretion." Such only are qualified to be confirmed as can say the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the Church Catechism; to the end that children having learned what their godfathers and godmothers promised for them in baptism, they may themselves ratify and confirm the same; acknowledging themselves "bound to believe and to do" all which those persons undertook for them. It is affirmed in the sixtieth canon of the Anglican church, that confirmation is “a solemn, ancient, and laudable custom in the church of God, continued from the apostolic times." On the other hand, among the Protestant Dissenters it is regarded merely as the remnant of a Popish ceremony; with the assertion, that there is no more authority for that which is retained of it than for that which is rejected. The passages of scripture which are always adduced in support of this episcopal imposition of hands are the three following; namely, Acts viii. 14-17; Acts xix. 6, and especially Heb. vi. 1, where emileσis Xe pov," the imposition of hands," appears to be mentioned as an important rite of the Christian religion. But Dissenters disallow

this mode of proving the propriety of the imposition of episcopal hands. They deny it to be a legitimate inference from the miraculous act of inspired Apostles to the act of modern bishops. What warrant, they ask, has a bishop to declare that God has given unto an assemblage of several hundreds of individuals" the forgiveness of all their sins," because they can say the Church Catechism? (See on this question, Towgood's Letters on Dissent;' De Laune's 'Plea for the Nonconformists,' &c.) Dr. Whitby observes that, unless the Apostles laid hands on all who were baptised, it makes nothing for confirmation; and that if they did, then Simon Magus received the Holy Ghost. The early fathers certainly believed the Holy Ghost to be indeed conveyed by the imposition of hands. "When we come out of the water," says Tertullian (De Baptismo,' c. 7, 8), 'we are anointed with the holy chrism (perunguimur benedicta unctione), then we have the imposition of hands, which calls down the Holy Ghost (tradit Spiritum Sanctum Paracletum)." (De Resurrec. Carnis, c. 8; Hieron. advers. Lucif.,' tom. ii., p. 47; Cyprian, Epist.' 73-74 ad Jub., and 72 ad Steph.) Confirmation was originally thus administered immediately after baptism, of which it formed the concluding rite or complement, and was called BeBaiwois; that is, confirmation; nor was there any exception to this time of administering it in the case of baptism in infancy. In the Greek church, and in Asia, it still accompanies baptism. The remonstrance of the Protestants at the Reformation caused the rite to be discontinued to infants, and to be administered only to adults; and afterwards the Council of Trent altered the time for confirmation to the seventh year. The earliest mention, by the Fathers, of the use of chrism or sacred ointment in confirmation is believed to be in the passage of Tertullian' de Baptismo,' already quoted (Bingham, b. xii., c. 3); but the church of Rome adduces the authority of the Epistle of James v. 14. The anointing the forehead with this holy unction, which was composed of oil and balsam, constituted the first act of the ceremony of confirmation. The consignation, or signing with the sign of the cross, was the second; and the third and last was the imposition of the bishop's hands, with the invocation of the Holy Ghost. The person was then qualified to partake of the eucharist. Confirmation in the Greek church is named μupov, "ointment;" Xploua, "unction ;”_ μupdv Toù XpíopaTos; oppayis, "the seal;" and eropά yoμa. In the Roman church this rite is one of their seven sacraments, and it consists in the bishop's anointing the forehead of the person, saying, "A. B., I sign thee with the sign of the cross, and confirm thee with the chrism of salvation, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." The bishop then gives a slight blow on the cheek, and concludes with pronouncing the words Pax tecum, "Peace be with thee."

Lord King, in his History of the Primitive Church,' p. 91, has shown that confirmation was originally the same thing as absolution, and that it was frequently repeated on the same individual. On the reiteration of the rite, see also Morinus De Poenitentiâ et Ordinatione,' 1. 9.

The Puritan contempt for the hierarchy occasioned confirmation to become greatly neglected after the Protestant Reformation in England (Hooker, 1. 5, 66; Bishop Hall's xeipotería); but subsequent to that period the Church of England has observed the rite with much more strictness than the Lutheran or any other church. In Germany it was not generally adopted till the middle of the 18th century.

Du Pin (Study of Divinity,' p. 216) gives a numerous list of writers on the subject. (Bingham's 'Origines Ecclesiasticae,' vol. iii., p. 286, et seq.; Hammond 'De Confirmatione;' Bishop Parker 'on Confirmation;' Goar's 'Euchologia,' p. 368; Gratian, Concordantia Discordantium,' part iii.) CONFIRMATION (in law)., [DEED.]

CONGÉ D'ESLIRE (or D'ÉLIRE), a term in Norman French, literally signifying "leave to elect," which is appropriated to the king's writ or license to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop, at the time of the vacancy of the see. The right of nominating to bishoprics was in most countries of Europe enjoyed by the temporal sovereigns, with little opposition from the ecclesiastical authorities, until the 11th century, when a contest began between the popes and the monarchs of Europe, which, in the next century, ended in the latter being compelled to surrender this important privilege to the clergy. Father Paul (Treatise of Benefices,' c. 24), says that between 1122 and 1145, it became a rule almost everywhere established, that bishops should be chosen by the chapter. In England, by the constitutions of Clarendon, in 1164, the election was vested in the chapters, subject to the king's approbation of the object of their choice. The right of election was afterwards formally surrendered to the chapters by a charter of King John, by which however he reserved to himself, among other things, the right of granting a congé d'eslire, and of confirming the choice of the chapter. This grant of freedom of election was expressly recognised in Magna Charta, and also by a subsequent statute, 25 Ed. III., stat. 6, which was passed for the purpose of preventing the popes from interfering with the elections to dignities and benefices in England.

So the law stood until the passing of 25 Henry VIII., c. 20, which, though revealed in Edward the VI.th's reign, was afterwards revived, and by which episcopal elections are regulated at the present day. By

this Act it is provided that upon every avoidance of an archbishopric or bishopric the king may grant to the dean and chapter a license under the great seal to proceed to the election of a successor, and with the license a letter missive containing the name of the person whom they are to elect. If the dean and chapter delay their election above twelve days after receiving the license, the king may, by letters patent, nominate any person whom he pleases to the vacant see; if they delay the election beyond twenty days, or elect any other person than the candidate recommended by the king, or do anything else in contravention of the Act, they incur the penalties of a præmunire. Bishoprics in Ireland are donative by letters patent, without a congé d'eslire. ('Irish Stat,' 2 Eliz., c. 4.)

CONGESTION, a preternatural accumulation of blood in the capillary vessels of the sanguiferous system, attended with disordered function of the organs in which such an accumulation takes place. The main functions of the sanguiferous system are performed by the ultimate divisions of the blood-vessels, called, from their hair-like minuteness, capillaries; the office of the main trunks and the larger branches of the blood-vessels being merely to convey to the capillaries the material acted upon by them in the various processes which they perform. In the natural and healthy state of an organ, the arterial capillaries in which the arterial trunks that supply it with arterial blood terminate, receive a certain quantity of blood; retain that blood a given time; and then transmit it with a given impetus into the venous capillaries, which in their turn convey it into the larger venous branches, and these to the heart with a given degree of velocity. Upon this transmission of the blood to and from the organs in a given quantity and a given time, depends the balance of the circulation; upon the due balance of the circulation depends the healthy condition of the organic processes; and upon the healthy condition of the organic processes depends the sound performance of the animal functions.

Of the mode in which the balance of the circulation is disturbed by the preternatural accumulation of blood in the capillary vessels, some conception may be formed by observing the phenomena that take place when a mechanical or chemical irritant is applied to a transparent part of the animal body; and when such a part is brought under the field of the microscope, so that the circulation in the minute vessels can be distinctly seen. In this case, the first phenomenon observable is a quickened circulation in the part, and the consequent determination to it of a greater quantity of blood; next, after a time, the blood-vessels are seen to dilate and to become turgid with blood; and in the third place, the flow of blood through these distended vessels is manifestly retarded; and ultimately, if the irritating cause continue to operate with a certain degree of intensity, the circulation is wholly stopped. The quickened circulation, the first phenomenon that takes place, is occasioned by the action of the contractile power inherent in the coats of the capillary vessels, excited in an inordinate degree by the application of the unusual stimulus. The dilatation of the capillary vessels, the subsequent event, arises from a diminution of the vital power of the coats of the vessels, from the over-excitement produced by the irritating cause.

The tissue of the body in which the state of congestion is most apt to occur, is the cellular, and more especially in the lax and little cohesive condition in which this tissue forms the parenchyma of the different internal organs, as the brain, the lungs, the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, and so on. A congested state of their blood-vessels is also peculiarly apt to occur in the mucous membranes, and more especially in the mucous membranes of the bronchi and air vesicles of the stomach and the alimentary canal, and of the ovaria and uterus. But besides these, other and less yielding structures, as the serous and fibrous membranes, the skin, and even the muscles, may be affected with congestion, after the operation of causes which have exhausted the vital energies of the system in general, or which have diminished the vital cohesion of these structures in particular.

Congestion, when present to any considerable extent, and when continuing for any length of time, disorders the function of the organ in which it takes place. The signs of this disordered function are signs from which it is inferred that congestion is present. If, for example, the blood-vessels of the brain be in a state of congestion, the activity and energy of the cerebral functions will be diminished, indicated by dulness, heaviness, forgetfulness, inaptitude for mental labour, giddiness, lethargy, and so on; and if the congestion be in great intensity, it may produce all the symptoms of coma and even of apoplexy. [APOPLEXY; COMA] If the blood-vessels of the liver be in a state of congestion, the secretion of bile will be disordered; altered in quality, diminished in quantity, or entirely suppressed. If the blood-vessels of the mucous membrane of the air passages be in a state of congestion, it will occasion uneasiness in the chest, difficulty of breathing, cough, &c. Congested states of these and other organs are exceedingly apt to occur in the progress of other diseases, more especially in the different types of fever, the character of which they modify, and the severity and danger of which they always greatly increase. There are fevers, indeed, and those of the very worst kind, that is, the most intense and the least under the control of any known remedies, in which a high degree of congestion of the blood-vessels of the brain, of the lungs, of the liver, or of the mucous membrane of the intestines, is among the very first appreciable morbid conditions of the system; but in general such a congested state of the blood-vessels is consequent upon preceding morbid conditions of the organs; conditions by which the vital energies of the blood-vessels have been exhausted.

The appearances presented by congested parts after death, vary with their structure and with the degree and duration of the affection. The capillary arteries and veins are turgid with blood; the blood they contain is of a darker colour than natural; hence the colour of the organ, the seat of the congestion, is darker in proportion to the intensity of the affection; it is also commonly more or less swollen, and the cohesion of its tissues is diminished, so that they are more readily torn than when in a healthy condition. In some organs, indeed, as in the liver and the spleen, when the congestion is in an extreme degree, the cohesion of the component tissues is so much lessened that the organs are broken down on the slightest pressure.

Anything may be the cause of congestion which diminishes the vital energy of the capillary vessels; or which changes, beyond a certain limit, the quantity and quality of the blood they contain. If the vital

From the preceding statement, a distinct conception may be formed of that morbid condition of the blood-vessels, to the designation of which the term congestion is commonly applied. How greatly such a condition of the blood-vessels must disturb their natural functions, and consequently how powerful an agent it must be in the production of disease, it is also easy to conceive. But pathologists have hitherto made but slight progress in determining with precision the nature of the morbid changes which take place, either in the blood-vessels themselves, or in the tissues in which, as a consequence of this affection, an alteration of structure is sometimes ultimately superinduced.

From an observation of the phenomena connected with the state of congestion, it is usually distinguished into passive and active. When there is merely an accumulation of blood in the distended and debilitated capillaries, without any other manifest morbid phenomenon, the state is called simple congestion; and this state of congestion is commonly said to be passive. But when to this accumulation of blood there are superadded certain phenomena which accompany and which characterise another morbid state, namely, inflammation, the congestion is termed active. In active congestion, the blood-vessels themselves are in a state of excitement; the preternatural quantity of blood they contain is determined to them by their own inordinate activity; they are in a condition not of diminished but of exalted vital energy. In passive congestion, on the contrary, the coats of the vessels are destitute of their natural tonic, vital resistance; yield readily to the current of blood which is determined to them, or unable to pass on the current they receive, the blood accumulates in them and distends them. Active congestion, according to this account, however, can be distinguished by no certain and even no appreciable character from infla nmation, a state which is always supposed to be different from congestion. [INFLAMMATION.]

tension necessary to prevent distension of their parietes, and a consequent preternatural accumulation of blood. If the quantity and quality of the blood they contain be altered, their natural stimulus may be so deficient as not to excite, or so excessive as to exhaust them. For the treatment of congestion, see INFLAMMATION.

CONGREGATION most commonly signifies an assembly of persons for the purpose of public worship and religious edification. It denotes more particularly a number of ecclesiastics constituting a legislative and executive body; and in this acceptation it is applied chiefly to certain boards of administration consisting of cardinals and of prelates, or aspirants to the cardinalslip in Rome. These congregations serve as a check on the papal authority; for though their proceedings are usually sanctioned by the pope, he cannot, without alleging the weightiest reasons, put a veto on them. The whole number of these congregations is twenty-one; that is, fifteen for spiritual and six for temporal purposes. Congregation is also used to designate a company, society, or fraternity of monks forming a subdivision of an order, as the congregation of the Oratory, or of Cluny among the Benedictines. The Congregation of the Lord was an appellation assumed by the Scotch Presbyterian Reformers, who called the Church of England the congregation of Satan. They appeared first in 1557, under the Earl of Argyle, and were subsequently led by John Knox.

Congregationalists are those who compose the congregations which assume an independence not only of the ecclesiastical control of the established hierarchy, but of all authority extraneous to the constituency of the congregation itself. They may therefore in general be said to be identical with the Independents. They are said by some to have appeared first in 1616, under the conduct of Mr. Jacob. (Evans's 'View.') But they are generally considered to be of the same origin as the Brownists, who appeared in 1600. [BROWN, ROBERT, in BIOG. Div.] The real founding of this sect is attributed to Mr. Robinson, in 1640, and the following passage from his Apology' (c. 5, p. 22) is adduced as their leading maxim: "Cætum quemlibet particularem

the sphere be then projected upon the cone by lines drawn through the centre, the parts adjacent to the small circle of contact will be projected into figures very nearly similar to the originals. If the degrees of latitude, which are very nearly equal, be made actually equal, no injurious effect will be produced on the map. Suppose, for instance, it is required to draw the map of a country contained between two given longitude circles, and two given parallels of latitude.

Take any radius for the sphere, and let s A be the radius x cotangent of the middle latitude of the map. From A set off AB, AC, &c., equal to the arc of one degree (or whatever the distance may be between the parallels which it is desired to draw) on the great circle of the sphere chosen. Let L be half the total longitude contained between the extremities of the map, and take the angles A S P and As Q, equal to L x the sine of the middle latitude. Divide the angle Q5P into as many parts as there are degrees (or other required intervals of longitude lines) in L; then QRTP is the map required, and VXYZ such a portion as is usually exhibited on a sheet of paper. If, instead of the tangent cone, it be required to project upon the erne formed by the revolution of the chord which joins the two extreme points of the map on the sphere, let 7 and l' be the least and greatest latitudes, and let

There are two modifications of this principle which it will be convenient here to notice, the projection used by Flamsteed, and that adopted by the French government in their recent maps. In Flamsteed's projection the degrees of latitude are equal, and the parallels of latitude are perpendicular to the middle longitude circle, which is a vertical right line. But the degrees of longitude are made in every parallel to bear the same proportion to the degree of latitude as on the globe; so that the meridians are, in fact, curves, the ordinates of which are as the cosines of the abscissæ.

its specific gravity being 0.89. Its odour is powerful, diffusible, and repulsive, somewhat like that of hemlock itself. It is intensely acrid to the taste. It has a strong alkaline reaction on turmeric paper. It combines readily with and neutralises acids; and some of the salts which it forms with them have been obtained in a crystalline state. It is sparingly soluble in water, and what is remarkable is, that it is more soluble in cold water than in hot. It imparts its odour and taste to water. Alcohol mixes with it in all proportions; and it also dissolves readily in ether. With about one-fourth of its weight of water it forms a hydrate. By exposure to the air it quickly becomes of a dark colour, and spontaneously decomposes with the evolution of ammonia. Its boiling point is 370 Fahr. It distils, however, with boiling water, but suffers partial decomposition.

It is one of the most virulent poisons known, destroying small animals by a very small quantity and in a very short time.

Hemlock also appears to contain a second base, methyl-conine (C,H,,N); whilst, by acting upon conine with iodide of ethyl, a third base, ethyl-conine (CHN), may be obtained.

CONJUGATE. This word is used in several branches of mathematics in a sense which (with one exception, and that might easily be abolished) may be described as follows: Two points, lines, &c., are called conjugate, when they are considered together in any property in such a manner that they may be interchanged without altering the way of enunciating the property. Thus, if AC be to CB as AD to D B, C and D are conjugate points with regard to this property.

If we write D where c now is, and c for D, the property is still expressed in exactly the same way. We have other instances in conjugate diameters, conjugate hyperbolas [ELLIPSE; HYPERBOLA}, conjugate foci [LENS; MIRROR].

The instance of exception is the conjugate point of a curve, meaning a single point lying by itself, whose co-ordinates satisfy the equation of the curve, without its actually being on any continuous branch of the curve. [CURVES, THEORY OF] It would be better to call this point conjunct than use a term which destroys the generality of language. But the best term, in our opinion, would be evanescent oval. [See the article already cited.]

CONJUGATION of a verb is a term in Grammar, denoting the addition of suffixes or prefixes to the crude, or elementary form of a verb, for the purpose of denoting respectively, person, number, time, state, mood, and what is generally understood by voice. In the English language prefixes are commonly used for these purposes, and these prefixes are not printed in connection with the verb, though the voice presents them in one mass. Thus, I shall have heard, as pronounced, is not less one word than the Latin audi-v-er-o. In this example, therefore, I, shall, have, are virtually prefixes, and the letter d, a contraction from ed, or rather de, is a suffix attached to the simple verb or crude form hear. In the ancient languages, such as Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit, suffixes are commonly but not exclusively preferred.

The suffixes which denote the persons are the personal pronouns more or less corrupted. Thus, in Latin, egomet is the full form of the pronoun which signifies I; but as three syllables would be too long. for a term in such frequent use, and this inconvenience in the present instance would be aggravated by an appearance of egotism, the word was shorn of its exterior letters, and at the utmost the three middle

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we were;

letters, ome, were attached to the verb. We see them in the Greek form tupt-ome-s, or tupt-ome-n, we strike.". In the Latin, the vowels were corrupted, so that instead of sme, either umu or imu occur, as in -umu-s, we are;" poss-umu-s, "we are able;" scrib-imu-s, "we write." The old German has nearly the same suffix in war-ume-s, bir-ume-s, we be." Again, the three letters, ome, deprived of the last vowel, became om, as Greek, tupt-om-ai, "I strike myself;" um, as Latin, s-um, “ I am;" poss-um, "I am able; " also am, as seen in inquam, "I say;" and on, as Greek, e-tupt-on, "I was striking." But the first vowel might disappear instead of the last. Thus, me is the form which appears in the Greek es-me-n, or es-me-s, we are;" mi is used in es-mi, ei-mi, "I am; di-do-mi, “I give," &c. Sometimes the m is all that appears, as scribeba-m, "I was writing." In Greek, this final m, by a principle constantly observed in that language, becomes an a, as e-n," I was; " etetuphei-n, "I had struck." Another form of the suffix is o, instead of om, which is common both in the Greek and Latin,—as Greek, tupt-o," I strike;" Latin, scrib-o, "I write." Finally, all trace of the pronoun at times disappears, and the defect ceases to mislead because the other persons have their characteristic terminations. Thus the Greek tenses, etupsa, "I struck," tetupha, "I have struck," and etetuphea, "I had struck," contain no remnant of the pronoun. In the English language there are some slight traces of the personal suffixes, which existed in full perfection in some of the older forms of the Teutonic languages. The word am, for example, has a remnant of the first person suffix in its final m.

The second person in the Greek and Latin languages was su or tu ; in German, du; and in English, "thou." Accordingly, we find a sibilant attached to the verb to denote the second person, as in the Greek, es-si, "thou art;" ois-thu, "thou knowest;" tupt-es-ai, thou strikest thyself;" in the Latin, scrib-is, "thou writest;" and in the