let a time elapse during which the direct and retrograde disturbances We may thus trace the effect of disturbance upon an indefinitely extended string; but such a string would produce no musical sound, for which it is necessary that there should be a continued reiteration of the same action upon the air repeated at equal intervals. Now supposing a finite string, stretched at the ends, we must ask what takes place when the disturbance comes to the end of the string. And from mathematical analysis again, the following is the answer: Let P be the fixed end of the string, and choose the instant at which, had the string continued, the disturbance would have been BV A. Make a disturbance H A' equal and opposite to GA, and let it be compounded with G V B, on the supposition that it is part of a disturbance proceeding from P, such as would by itself bend the string in the opposite direction. Then PVB or PVA' is the state of the string at that instant. In fact, the disturbance is converted into an equal and opposite disturbance proceeding in the contrary direction. Now let us suppose a string like that of a pianoforte, sharply struck near one end. It is altogether a gratuitous assumption, knowing what we do of the imperfect elasticity of matter, to suppose that the disturbing effect of the blow immediately affects the whole string. A certain disturbance is produced upon a part (it may be a very small part) of the string. Then what is that perceptible phenomenon, the reiteration of which produces a musical tone? Let us suppose the string struck at one-fourth of the length from its end, and suppose that the tension is such that disturbance is propagated at the rate of 2000 feet a second, the length being four feet. A disturb ance is produced at M, from which two simple disturbances begin to travel towards P and Q, at which they are reflected with the same velocities. They will be at N together producing a disturbance (now recompounded) of the same amount as before, but on the opposite side of the string. This takes place while four feet are described at 2000 feet per second, or is repeated 250 times per second. From M to N there is then a succession of effects upon the air, which are most powerful at м and N, owing to the coincidence of the disturbances. This is repeated 250 times in a second, and yields the musical note corresponding to that number of aerial pulsations per second. This is 250 simple vibrations. If we define as a double vibration the time in which the disturbance comes to м again, we should say that there are 125 double vibrations in a second. There is much confusion among writers on this point; some use simple vibrations, or reversals; others use double vibrations, or restorations. where P M, M N, and NQ are the thirds. During the time in which the direct disturbance of PM would be communicated to MN, that of MN would be communicated to N Q, the direct disturbance in N Q would be made retrograde, and so on. Hence though the whole string may vibrate, each of the parts has a vibration by itself in one-third of the time. If we were to modify the vibration of the whole string by compounding with the preceding such a disturbance as would always destroy the velocities at M and N, there would then be three strings, each vibrating in one-third of the time of the whole string. The ear can appreciate such contemporaneous sets of vibrations, and accordingly in this case perceives both the fundamental note of the string and the twelfth above it. If a large and miscellaneous set of disturbances be communicated at once, those only will exhibit cycles of effects which make the halves, the thirds, &c., vibrate together, and we can say little more without entering into mathematics. But in a string it may always be observed that we seldom hear the octave of the fundamental note, and generally the twelfth and seventeenth. No reason can be given for this which is perfectly unobjectionable; we do not know whether it is the aptitude of the ear to distinguish these, or of the string to take the corresponding divisions, which is the cause of the phenomenon. The time of simple vibration of a string, that is, of complete reversal of all the initial effects, is ÷ 2 gc, where is the length, and c is as before. It is therefore directly as the length and inversely as the square root of the tension; results which are amply confirmed by experiment. In all that has preceded we have supposed the string perfectly elastic, and without friction. Neither of these suppositions is true, but since the velocity of propagation of every disturbance is independent of its extent, the gradual diminution of the latter will not affect the phenomenon on which the musical qualities of the string depend. The method of observing the curves in which each point of a string vibrates, recommended by Dr. Young, was to use a string round which small wire is coiled, like the larger string of a violoncello, and to observe with a microscope the reflection of a candle or other bright spot on one of the coils. Sir J. Herschel suggests that a thin slit should be made in a window-shutter, and that the string should be placed with the point to be examined cutting the vertical plane of light. This point would therefore appear bright while the rest is dark. In either case the rapidity of the vibrations would make the curve described by the bright point permanent. A single string fitted up for experiments is called a MONOCHORD. CORDELIERS, so named from wearing a knotted cord for a girdle, were the strictest branch of the Franciscan, or Gray, or Barefooted Friars, established towards the end of the 14th century. Chaucer mentions them in the Romaunt of the Rose,' 1. 7461. There were ultimately in France, according to Moreri (Dict. Historique'), no fewer than 284 male and 123 female convents of Cordeliers. political society, who were opposed to the Jacobins during the French revolution, also assumed this title, from having held its meetings in an old Franciscan convent. A CORDIALS. The beverages known by this name are made of ardent spirits, flavoured with sweetening and aromatic substances. A distiller who produces raw spirits from corn or malt, is not allowed by the excise laws of this country to give any additional or artificial flavour to his spirit; he must sell it in the crude ardent state in which it leaves the still. This is not done out of any consideration in which the consumers are concerned, but simply as a matter of revenue. The distillers rarely if ever sell spirit to the public generally. It is sold to the rectifiers, who re-distil it, and impart flavour to it by various means. Cordials are among the liquors which are so treated. Some are male simply by adding essential oils and syrup to diluted spirit; while others are made by adding aromatics to the spirit, boiling and redistilling it, and sweetening the re-distilled liquor. Some cordials are made from raw spirit, but the best from rectified spirit of wine. The various cordials are known by the names of the vegetable substance to which they chiefly owe their distinguishing flavours. Hence we hear of aniseed, caraway, cedrat, cinnamon, citron, clove, coriander, lemon, lovage, orange, peppermint, and other cordials. CORDON, a military term to denote a line of posts and sentries placed around a district or town to prevent any communication between it and the rest of the country. It is chiefly resorted to in cases of any contagious disease having broken out in a place, when it is called a cordon sanitaire; and in order to be effectual, each sentry ought to be able to see his two next comrades right and left. By supposing the whole string put in vibration, or any simultaneous disturbances communicated to it, the effect may similarly be shown to be, that at the end of the time during which disturbance would be propagated along the whole string the effects are all reversed, but are of the same magnitude; while in a second of such time they are all restored. We thus easily arrive at what is called the fundamental sound of a string. With regard to the harmonics of a string [HARMONICS], they are not so easily shown to be necessary. We shall however, first show that such effects are always possible; that is to CORIANDRUM SATIVUM, Medical Properties of. This umbel say, that if a string begin to vibrate so that its two halves, or its three-liferous annual plant is a native of the south of Europe, Tartary, &c., Cordon in French means also the insignia of an order of knighthood, answering to the English word riband when taken in a similar sense; "cordon bleu," "blue riband," &c. and much is imported from the Levant, though a considerable portion is cultivated in Suffolk and Essex, for the use of confectioners in this country. The officinal part is the fruit, improperly called the seed. This is round, white, not unlike a grain of white pepper, and was used as a means of comparison for the manna with which the Israelites were fed in the wilderness. (See Exodus' xvi. 31, and Numbers xi. 7.) The fresh fruit has a disagreeable odour, which disappears on drying, leaving a pleasant and peculiar one. The taste is warm and aromatic. The potency depends upon the quantity of volatile oil. Ten pounds of fruit yield six drachms of volatile oil. This oil, which is of a yellowish colour, is not in the Pharmacopoeia, but it may be used in the same way as the other distilled waters or oils, as a carminative. Coriander was thought better to disguise the odour and taste of senna than other aromatics, but in the infusion ginger is now substituted for it. Making the infusion with cold water is preferable to either, and avoids the tendency to griping. Coriander is retained as an ingredient of the Confectio Sennæ. It is necessary to guard against confounding coriander with the seed of the Daphne Mezereon, called Semen Coccognidii, as the latter is very poisonous. CORINTHIAN ORDER. [COLUMN.] CORINTHIANS, ST. PAUL'S TWO EPISTLES TO THE. The First Epistle of St. Paul to the Gentile and Jewish converts to Christianity in the city of Corinth is generally considered by the commentators and critics to have been written A.D. 57-8. Of this opinion are Michaelis, Mill, Whitby, Pearson, Benson, Paley, Adam Clarke, Greswell, &c.; but the date assigned to it by Beausobre, L'Enfant, and Lardner is A.D. 56. The first date appears to be the more correct, for in chap. xvi. v. 8, St. Paul announces his intention of remaining in Ephesus until Pentecost; he then went to Macedonia ('Cor.' ii. ch. ii. 13), and this would bring him to the third or beginning of the fourth year of the reign of Nero, or A.D. 57. The place from which it was written is stated in the concluding postscript to be Philippi, which, as it apparently contradicts the apostle's statement in verse 8, "I shall remain in Ephesus until Pentecost," (èmiμeva dè èv Epéow), the latter place is commonly given as the more probable; especially as these postscripts appear to be in other instances erroneous, and without authority. In order clearly to perceive the design of these epistles, it is necessary to observe the following circumstantial facts which gave occasion to the writing of them: Christianity was first preached at Corinth by St. Paul, who resided there about eighteen months, between A.D. 51 and 53. His successors were Apollos, Aquila, and Sosthenes. But shortly after his departure several other learned and eloquent teachers of Christianity drew away most of the Christian converts from the Gospel doctrine as set forth by St. Paul, and formed them principally into two separate parties, the one contending for the rigid observance of the Jewish ritual, the other for indulgence in some of the idolatrous and lascivious customs of the worship of Venus, to whom a magnificent temple, containing a thousand prostitutes (Strabo, Casaub., 378), was dedicated in the centre of this great commercial city, which bore a proverbial character for luxury and licentiousness. Some writers conjecture that the Judaizing preachers of the Gospel in Corinth were some of the twelve apostles; since Paul asserts that on this question he withstood Peter to the face, and (2 Cor. xi. 22, 23) he speaks of these teachers as Hebrews and ministers of Christ. On being apprised of this condition of the Corinthian church, St. Paul wrote his first epistle, the contents of which may be considered under two general heads; first, the reproval of abuses and corruptions which disgraced the Christian community of Corinth; secondly, the reply to various questions, for the decision of which the Corinthians had appealed to the judgment of their apostle. After commencing with the usual salutation, he proceeds therefore to rebuke their schisms and assumption of knowledge and wisdom; exhorting them to become united to himself, as having a prior claim to their respect and attention (c. i. to iv.). He next reproves them for not having delivered unto Satan one who had his father's wife (c. v.); for not suffering themselves to be defrauded rather than go to law; and especially for their indulgence in fornication (c. vi.). Then follow answers to the questions, in which instructions are given concerning marriage, celibacy of virgins and widows, the eating of idolatrous sacrifices, the exercise of supernatural gifts, the proprieties to be observed by public preachers, and the forbidding women to address congregations (c. viii. to xiv.). A censure is passed upon the profane observance of the Lord's Supper, for in eating it, each before another took his own supper, so that while one was hungry another was drunk (ἔκαστος γὰρ τὸ ἴδιον δεῖπνον προλαμβάνει ἐν τῷ φαγεῖν· καὶ ὃς μὲν πεινᾷ, ὃς δὲ μεθύει) c. xi. 21. From c. xv. 12, it appears that it was taught among the Christians of Corinth that there is no resurrection of the dead. St. Paul thence takes occasion to expatiate upon the subject to the end of this chapter, which forms the most imposing part of the Church of England Burial Service. The epistle closes with an exhortation to the Corinthians to secure the collection of money for the necessitous saints in Judæa, both hearers and preachers, which is several times enforced with various arguments, especially in c. ix. and xvi., and in c. viii. and ix. of the second epistle, of which we now come to speak. It is generally agreed that the Second Epistle to the Corinthians was written in 58, about a year after the first, and from Philippi, as the postscript asserts. The main purpose of St. Paul in this epistle was to repel the imputations which it appears his first epistle had induced the opponent teachers to make, alike as to his doctrines, authority, and personal appearance. It is in fact an apologetic oration, in which the apostle enlarges on his spiritual office, power, and qualifications; and speaks of his supernatural revelations, as far exceeding the pretensions of his rivals at Corinth, whom he designates "false apostles, deceitful workers, and ministers of Satan," xi. 13. He explains at length the cause of his not having visited the Corinthiaus as he promised, declares his great success in preaching, mentions his numerous sufferings and disasters incurred for the sake of the faithful, enforces the necessity of completing the contribution for the saints, and concludes with a farewell salutation. The great rhetorical merits of this address are critically discussed in the Disputatio Inauguralis de alterâ Pauli ad Corinthios Epistolâ,' by M. Royards, 8vo, 1818. All the passages in the fathers of the first three centuries which contain any citation from, or allusion to, these two epistles of St. Paul, are collected in the 2nd vol. of Dr. Lardner's Credibility. The words in the first epistle, "Eypala úμîv èv Tη êñιOTOAN (c. v. 9), have been the subject of great controversy, as implying that another epistle, not now extant, was written before the one which is called the first. A long list of the critics and divines who have given opinions about it, may be found in Horne's Introduc.,' vol. iv. p. 353. Numerous critical particulars may be found in the following works: Michaelis, Introduction to the New Testament,' by Bishop Marsh, vol. iv.; Eichhorn, Einleitung in das Neue Test.,' vol. iii.; Macknight on the Epistles; Horne's Introduction,' vol. iv.; Greswell, Harmony of Gospels,' vol. ii.; Paley's 'Hora Paulina;' Barnes, 'Notes Explanatory and Practical on the Epistles to the Corinthians and Galatians; Jäger, Erklärung der beiden Briefe der Apostels Paulus nach Corinth ;' Nabiger, Kritische Untersuchungen über den Briefe des Apostels Paulus an die Korinthische Gemeinde, mit Rücksicht auf die ihr herrschenden Streitigkeit,' Breslau, 1847. Critical commentaries by Piscator, Rollock, Schlater, and others, are enumerated in Watts' Bibliotheca,' where a very copious list is given of sermons on texts from these Epistles, both of which were first printed separately from the Testament by Melancthon at Wittenberg in 1521. 6 CORK; CORK-CUTTING. The substance commonly known as cork is the outer bark of an evergreen oak, which grows abundantly in Portugal, Spain, the south of France, and Italy. The greatest quantity of cork-bark used in Europe is supplied by Spain and Portugal, but that which is of the best quality is grown in France. Cork was known and used by the Greeks and Romans, the latter of whom sometimes employed it as we do, for the stopping of casks, and also for the soles to women's winter shoes. (Plin. xvi 8.) The careful removal of the outer bark from the cork-tree does not in any way injure it, as this outer bark is really dead bark; on the contrary it is stated that the tree grows more vigorously and lives longer, in consequence of being thus stripped. This operation is first performed when the tree is about fifteen years old, and may be repeated once in every eight or ten years. The bark obtained by the first stripping is of little or no value; but the produce becomes greater in quantity and better in quality at each successive cutting. The months of July and August are chosen for performing this operation. A cork-tree, thus periodically barked, will live for a century and a half. The inner bark contains a considerable proportion of tannin, but it cannot be removed without killing the tree. This destructive plan is resorted to in Corsica, where the cork-oak is indigenous and abundant. Vast numbers of the trees are cut down every year, the outer bark being used as cork, which, however, is not of good quality: the inner bark being sold, principally at Marseille, to the tanners; and the trunks and branches being burned for the sake of the ashes. It is usual, when cork-bark is taken from the trees, to char it slightly, in order to improve the texture by closing the pores; but this burning occasions that peculiar and disagreeable empyreumatic flavour which is so frequently imparted to liquors which have been stopped by cork thus treated. Some years ago an attempt was made to avoid this evil by using corkbark which is not so old, the texture of which is so close as not to need the aid of fire; but this bark is too thin for ordinary purposes, and could only be used by cementing two or more layers of it together. The risk of bad flavour was by this means altogether avoided; but, for some reason or other, the plan has not been persevered in. Cork is light, porous, readily compressible and very elastic. first-mentioned of these qualities, its lightness, occasions it to be used as floats for fishing-nets, &c. For its more general employment, that of stopping bottles, it is peculiarly fitted by its compressibility and elasticity, while its pores are sufficiently minute to prevent the passage through them of the fluids which it is meant to confine. The In making corks by the ordinary method, the material is entirely shaped by very sharp, smooth-edged broad knives, without the aid of any machinery; it is one of those employments in which everything depends on the manual skill gradually acquired by the workman. The attempts to make corks by machinery have been very numerous. In one among several American patents for this purpose the quadrangular pieces of cork, cut to proper lengths, are held between two revolving spindles which grip them; and as they revolve, the cork is cut round by a revolving cutter-wheel, the arbor of which is horizontal and has its bearings in a sliding frame. Other apparatus allows the Mr. Gilpee's patented machine for cork cutting, has a cutting blade which has a horizontal reciprocating motion, and which acts upon pieces of cork grasped by rotating holders. Harris's patented apparatus contains a circular toothed cutter, mounted horizontally with a circle of holders; pieces of cork are put into the holders, and the holders receive modified movements while the cutter revolves. successful. Many substitutes for cork have from time to time been introduced, as stoppers for bottles. Mr. Brockedon has invented bottle-stoppers made of India-rubber. The core of the stopper is made of cotton twisted into strands; several of the strands, lapped with flax thread, are laid together longitudinally, with loose fine cotton roving laid between them. They are then lapped in a cylindrical form with flax thread, and the India-rubber solution applied to it while warm. It is only for peculiar purposes that these stoppers can be used as substitutes for corks; when applied, they must be slightly wetted to make them slide down the inner surface of the neck of the bottle. Messrs Betts have introduced metallic capsules for covering the mouths of corked bottles. [CAPSULES.] One of many modes suggested of employing cork for stuffing beds and cushions is that patented a few years ago by M. Bachelard. According to this suggestion, the cork is used in the state of saw-dust or shreds, instead of in bulk. Any mode of preparing it may be adopted, provided the cork be in very small fragments. It may be used alone, or combined with wool or horsehair. The patentee states that if a substratum of the cork be covered with a layer of horse-hair or wool, we shall have all the smoothness of a horse-hair or wool mattrass, combined with the lightness and elasticity of cork. When used | at sea, such a mattrass might be light enough to act as a life-preserver, in case of exigency. Mr. Ritchie has introduced an ingenious mode of using cork in beds, mattrasses, &c.; and also in hats. his liege people of his realm of England, to ship and carry corn out of the said realm, to what parts that please them, except to his enemies, paying the subsidies and devoirs thereof due, notwithstanding any ordinance, proclamation, or any defence (prohibition) made before this time to the contrary; nevertheless he will that his council may restrain the said passage when they shall think best for the profit of the realm." This act was confirmed in 1425 by the act 4 Henry VI., c. 5. Eleven years later it was thought necessary to fix a limit in regard to the price at which the liberty to export should cease, and that limit was declared (15 Henry VI., c. 2) to be 6s. 8d. per quarter for wheat, and 3s. per quarter for barley. This act was passed for only a limited time, and had expired, when, in 1441, on the meeting of parliament, it was renewed in the following terms: "Our sovereign lord the king, forasmuch as this statute is not now in his force, and that many counties adjoining to the sea may not sell the substance of their corn but by carriage and bringing by the sea, hath ordained, that the statute and ordinance aforesaid, now expired, shall begin to hold his force at the Feast of the Nativity of our Lady next ensuing, and shall endure from thence till the parliament next to be holden after the same feast, so that a parliament be holden within ten years next ensuing after the first beginning of this present parliament, and if so that there be no parliament holden within the same ten years, that then it shall continue and endure till the end of the same ten years:" in 1444 this act was ordained to be perpetual, and stand in his force for ever" (23 Henry VI., c. 5). no person, The limited permission thus given to export their produce must be attributed to the increasing power of the land owners; and it may be A "Patent Cork Cutting Company" was established a few years taken as evidence that the cost of production in this kingdom was at ago, for the manufacture of corks by machinery. The patentees least equally moderate with the cost in neighbouring countries, that averred that the corks so made were both cheaper and better than in all this time no attempt was made to prohibit or restrict the imthose made by hand. The same company manufactured cork gun-portation of the produce of other countries. Such a restriction was, wadding, used in military services. The speculation was not however | however, imposed in 1463 by the statute 3 Edward IV., c. 2, which on the plea that "the labourers and occupiers of husbandry within this realm of England be daily grievously endamaged by bringing of corn out of other lands and parts into this realm of England, when corn of the growing of this realm is at a low price," enacts that " from the feast of Saint John the Baptist next ensuing, shall bring into England any wheat, rye, or barley, not of English or Irish growth, unless the price of wheat shall exceed 68. 8d. the quarter, that of rye 48., and that of barley 3s., on pain of forfeiture of the grain." The statutes here mentioned, by which the prices were established at which the importation and exportation of corn were respectively to cease, continued in force until 1534, when a new act (25 Henry VIII., c. 2) prohibits, except by licence from the crown, the exportation of grain, the reason for which alteration is thus quaintly expressed in the preamble to the act: "Forasmuch as dearth, scarcity, good, cheap, and plenty of cheese, butter, capons, hens, and other victuals necessary for men's sustenance, riseth and chanceth of so many and divers occasions that it is very hard and difficile to put any certain prices to any such things, no person or persons, unless it be by licence under the king's great seal, from henceforth shall carry or convey any corn, beeves, muttons, veals, porks, or any other of the above said victuals to any parts beyond the sea, except only for the victualling the towns of Calais, Guinnes, and the marches of the same, and except for victualling of ships passing the seas." The civil wars which preceded the accession of Henry VII. had caused much land to be thrown out of cultivation, and the act of 1534 was probably occasioned by the consequent diminution of produce, but this attempt failed, as it necessarily must, to increase the supply of grain, which effect would best have been brought about by a removal of all restriction. Such a course would have ill agreed with the imperfect ideas upon such subjects which then prevailed; but as the evil was increased during the next seventeen years, and it was thought necessary to apply some remedy, the statute 5 & 6 Edward VI., c. 5, was then passed. This statute is entitled, " An act for the maintenance and increase of tillage and corn," and it enacts that thenceforth at least as much land should be tilled in every parish as had been under the plough at any time since the acces sion of Henry VIII., under a penalty, to be exacted from the parish, of 58. for every acre that should be deficient. The general permission to export grain, which had been taken away in 1534, was restored in 1554 (1 & 2 Philip & Mary, c. 5), whenever the prices were at or under 6s. 8d. per quarter for wheat, 4s. for rye, and 38. for barley. The preamble to this act makes it appear that it was passed, not in consequence of the prevalence of any sounder views of public economy, but because it was found impossible to prevent exportation, and it was thought that better success would attend the regulation than the prohibition of the trade. In 1562 an alteration in the law was made, by enlarging the limits of the prices which governed exportation, and these were fixed at 108. per quarter for wheat, 88. for rye, and 68. 8d. for barley; and nine years later it was enacted (13 Eliz., c. 13) that corn might be exported on payment of certain specified duties at all times when no proclamation had been issued to the contrary. The law of 1463 had all this time been in existence, prohibiting importation while the prices of wheat, rye, and barley should be under 68. 8d, 48., and 38. respectively; but the prices that had for some time prevailed rendered this law inoperative, and the law of 13 Elizabeth therefore gave virtual freedom to the trade in corn. CORN-LAWS AND CORN-TRADE. From a very early period of our history the corn-trade of the country was the subject of legislative interference and restriction. At first, and while the kingdom was thinly peopled, it was deemed good policy, in order to insure a sufficient supply of food for its inhabitants, to forbid the exportation of corn, while its importation was freely permitted; but, in later times, during which the population had increased with a rapidity rarely seen in long-settled countries, the policy of the legislature was altogether different. The object then sought was to stimulate home production by prohibiting importation, or by restricting it in such a degree as to secure to the native farmers a monopoly of the home market, and its ultimate aim was professed to be the securing of a constant sufficiency of a principal article of food, independent of all foreign countries, by means which should insure to the home grower an adequate return for the capital and skill employed. It needs no argument now to show that the policy of our ancestors was ill calculated to insure the end which they had in view, that of providing a sufficiency of cheap food for the common people. The earliest statute extant upon this subject is the 34th Edw. III., c. 20, passed in 1360-61, by which it was enacted, that" the passage of corn shall be prohibited in all the ports of England, so that none have licence nor warrant to pass with such corn in anywise, unless it be to Calais or Gascoigne, or to other special places which it behoveth that the king cause to be furnished with the corn of England, and that at his own ordinance and licence." The phraseology of this act has led to the supposition that exportation was previously illegal, except with a licence from the king, and that the object in framing this law was to define and restrict the royal prerogative in this particular. In 1394 another act was passed (17) Richard II., c. 7) of a somewhat contrary tendency. By this new law licence is granted by the king-such are the terms of the act-" to all In the succeeding reigns, and up to that of William and Mary, this 219 CORN-LAWS AND CORN-TRADE. system was continued, but accompanied by various modifications as regards the limiting prices and the rates of duty chargeable. The prices at which export was permitted were from time to time enlarged, until, in 1670, wheat might be shipped away at any time when the price did not exceed 538. 4d. per quarter. At the same time import duties were imposed, so heavy as to amount to a prohibition, the object of these regulations being to keep the price of wheat always as high as 538. 4d. per quarter for the advantage of the land-owners. Not satisfied, however, with this degree of favour, this powerful class succeeded in 1689 in procuring an Act (1 Will. & Mary, c. 12) whereby they secured the payment of a bounty amounting to 58. per quarter on the exportation of wheat when the price did not exceed 488. per quarter; and bounties according to the same scale were granted for the export of barley and other grain. CORN-LAWS AND CORN-TRADE. such during its continuance as to bring this Act into operation. In The inconvenience of the system of alternate prohibition and un- Not content with interposing obstacles to a free trade in corn with other countries, our ancestors thought fit to place restrictions upon that trade within the kingdom. It was imagined, that if the consumers could be brought to deal immediately with the growers, the profit of intermediate dealers would be saved. Under this impression, both parties looked unfavourably upon those dealers; the sellers imagining that they could obtain better prices, and the buyers that they could purchase cheaper but for the middlemen, while the common people An Act was passed, 63 were easily led to believe that the dearths which then frequently 64 occurred were attributable to the practices of the dealers in buying up 65 corn and withdrawing it from the market. declaring it to be an offence to buy corn in one market with intent to sell it again in another; and persons guilty of this offence, to which the name of engrossing was given, were punished with imprisonment 66 and the pillory. By a statute of Elizabeth, no person was permitted to convey corn from one part of the kingdom to another, unless he had a licence for the purpose, the right of granting or withholding which was confided to the magistrates in quarter sessions. These restrictions were modified in 1624, and by the act 15 Charles II. c. 7, the engrossing of corn was made legal whenever the price of wheat did not exceed 488. per quarter. So recently as the year 1800, when the price of wheat exceeded 100s. per quarter, engrossing however has been held to be an offence at common law, and a corn-dealer was convicted of it, but was not brought up for judgment. The Act of 1689 was modified in 1773, by reducing to 448. per A bill for raising the duties on importation, which was brought into WHEAT. When the price shall be 62s. and under 63s. per qr. 64 65 per qr. 248. 8d. 23 8 22 8 66 67 20 8 99 67 68 68 69 69 70 70 71 10 8 72 71 2 0 72 above 738. and in respect of each integral shilling, BARLEY. When the price shall be 33s. and under 343. per quarter, 12s. 4d. per quarter duty; and in respect of every integral shilling by which such price shall be above 33s., such duty shall be decreased by 1s. 6d., until such price shall be 41s., and whenever the price Whenever shall be at or above 41s., the duty shall be 18. per quarter. the price shall be under 33s. and not RYE, PEAS, AND BEANS. When the price shall be 36s. and under 378. per quarter, 15s. 6d. per quarter, and in respect of every inshall be above 368., the duty shall be tegral shilling, by which the price decreased by 1s. 6d until such price When the price shall be shall be 46s. at or above 468., 18. When the price shall be under 36s. and not under 358. per quarter, 168. 9d.; and in under 248., 10s. 9d.; and in respect respect of each integral shilling, or of each integral shilling, or any part of any part of each integral shilling, by which such price shall be under 358., the duty shall be increased by 1s. 6d. per quarter. On the 7th of May, 1841, an abortive attempt was made by the The dissolution of parliament, which took place very shortly after this proposition, was unfavourable to the ministry of the day to establish a fixed duty of 88. the quarter on the importation of foreign wheat. ministry. However, on the 9th of February, 1842, their successors brought forward a measure for a modification of the corn law of 1828, which was successfully carried, and came into operation on the 29th of April following. Under the Act 9 Geo. IV. c. 60, which lasted from the 15th of July, 1828, to the 29th of April, 1842, the total quantity of foreign wheat admitted was 13,562,856 quarters and 4,305,150 cwts. of foreign of colonial wheat and 1,744,591 cwts. of colonial flour. Nearly onewheat-flour, and, in addition, at a lower rate of duty, 597,700 quarters half of the foreign wheat and flour was admitted at the lowest rate of duty, and comparatively little at the higher rates, as the following statement will show: The average rate of duty was under 6s. the quarter. For the whole period during which this Act was in operation the average price of The highest yearly average was 70s. 8d., in 1839; and In 1838 the duty underwent thirty wheat in England and Wales was 59s. 4d., and the extreme points of the lowest 398. 4d., in 1835. fluctuation in the weekly averages were from 368. 8d. to 818. 6d., or 122 per cent. different changes. The scale of duties was so constructed as to offer one particular point, of only one shilling, brought down the duty four great inducements to the holders of foreign wheat to withhold supplies until the duty had reached the lowest point; and a rise in prices, at shillings. It was often stated that prices were fictitiously raised in order that the dealers might gain by the diminished duty; but the strong motives for all holders of wheat to keep back supplies, operated much in the same way, without any fraud on their part. In a single week, when the lowest duty has been attained, above 1,500,000 quarters of wheat have been liberated from the bonding warehouses, the holders of which had resolutely resisted the prevailing high prices until this object had been accomplished. The following was the scale of prices and rates of duty for foreign wheat and wheat-meal under the Act 5 Vict. c. 14: 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 44 0 0 7 2 7 0922 24 73 and upwards 0 0 71 The lowest duty in the above scale is not reached by jerks, as in the former one, and the "rest" between 668. and 69s. was an important modification. One hundred and thirty-eight new towns were added in the new Act to the one hundred and fifty which returned the average prices under the Act of 1828. From July, 1842, to January, 1843, inclusive, the average price of wheat in the 138 new towns was 538. 8d.; in the 150 old towns, 52s. 6d.; making an aggregate average of 52s. 10d. The importations of wheat which took place under the Act 5 Vict. c. 14, from April 29th, 1842, to 5th April, 1843, were : All the efforts, however, to maintain corn at an equable price were vain. At length, in 1845, the potato-rot in Ireland created serious apprehensions of a famine in the United Kingdom, close approaches to which had already been felt in Ireland. On November 22, Lord John Russell wrote a letter from Edinburgh declaring himself in favour of a total repeal of the corn-laws. On December 4, the Times' announced that the ministry had resolved to assemble Parliament early to take the corn-laws into consideration, with a view to their abolition; but on the 10th, the ministers resigned, and Lord John Russell received the Queen's commands to form a new administration. This, in the face of a parliament elected almost for the purpose of sustaining protection, he was unable to effect, and on Dec. 20, Sir Robert Peel re-accepted office. In the meantime the Anti-Corn-Law League commenced its operations, and numerous meetings were held, at which Mr. Cobden and Mr. Bright attended, and large subscriptions were raised, in order to effect their object of promoting freedom in the corn trade. Meetings were also held by large bodies of labouring agriculturists, and on Jan. 3, 1846, addresses were presented to the Queen by the corporations of London and Dublin praying her to open the 'ports for the importation of corn duty free. On Jan. 22, the parliament was opened by the Queen, who, in her speech, after alluding to the failure of the potato crop, noticed the prosperous state of the revenue as a proof of the wisdom of former measures passed for the relaxation of protective duties, and suggested whether the "principle might not be yet more extensively applied," and further reductions and remissions made. On Jan. 27, in a committee of the whole House, Sir Robert Peel developed his plan for removing all the restrictive duties on the importation of corn, and substituting instead a fixed duty of one shilling per quarter on all corn imported, whatever the price might be, and at the same time reducing and modifying the duties on other articles of food. A vehement opposition was raised against the measure in the House of Commons, which, during its progress, degenerated into violent attacks on the personal character and motives of Sir Robert Peel; but after a series of debates and several divisions, the third reading was carried on May 15, by 327 votes against 229. On May 18, the bill was introduced into the House of Lords by the Duke of Wellington, and after a series of animated debates, and in the face of an earnest opposition, it was passed on June 25, without a division, the opponents having been outvoted on several amendments that had been proposed by them during the discussion. The bill received the royal sanction on June 26. On the 25th Sir Robert Peel had been defeated on the Protection to Life in Ireland Bill, and on the 29th he announced his resignation, having succeeded in carrying this most important measure. It will have been seen that for a long series of years England exported grain, and efforts were made to encourage the exportation. In 1689, an Act was passed allowing a bounty of 58. per quarter when exported, if the home price did not exceed 488. per quarter; but in 1773 the home price was reduced to 448. per quarter before the bounty was allowed. This bounty was not abolished by Act till 1815, though the price at home had been so high as to negative its effects, except in 1792, when the yearly average was only 41s. 9d. per quarter. In fact, from 1790 England ceased altogether to be an exporting country. In 1800 and 1801, there were two bad harvests, and in the latter year wheat reached the unprecedented price of 115s. 11d. per quarter, and the quantity imported in the two years was 2,638,866 quarters. This occasioned a greater cultivation of land, and from 1800 to 1809 there were 847 inclosure bills passed. In 1810 there was another deficient harvest, and 1,491,341 quarters were imported. In 1812, though the price of wheat advanced to 122s. 8d. per quarter, only 244,385 quarters were imported. In 1818, on the contrary, when the average price was only 838. 8d. per quarter, there were imported 1,503,518 quarters. The framers of the law of 1829 intended it to prevent fluctuations in the price of English grain, but in the seven years, notwithstanding the provision, the price varied from 758. 3d. in 1829 to 36s. 8d. in 1835, descending regularly every year; while in the three years, 1829, 1830, and 1831, there were imported 4,557,736 quarters. In fact, the Act was a total failure, as far as regarded protection to the agriculturist, while it acted very injuriously to the population of the kingdom by artificially raising the price of bread, without any corresponding advantage to the revenue; for the great bulk of the importations was always brought in at a low rate of duty. The total quantity imported, however, kept increasing, with occasional exceptions; but in 1845, waiting the repeal of the duty, the importation was only 1,142,700 quarters, of which only 315,615 were taken for home consumption. In 1846, after the repeal, there were imported 1,437,944 quarters, and 1,995,852 were taken for home consumption. In 1847, there were imported 2,650,058 quarters; besides 6,329,646 cwts. of wheat-meal, 3,614,637 quarters of Indian corn, and 1,451,020 cwts. of Indian corn-meal. In 1848, there were imported 2,594,013 quarters of wheat, 1,765,475 cwts. of flour, and 1,586,781 quarters of Indian corn. In 1849, there were imported 3,872,134 quarters of wheat, 3,371,301 cwts. of flour, 2,247,424 quarters of Indian corn, and 102,173 cwts. of Indian cornmeal. In 1850, there were imported 3,754,593 quarters of wheat, 3,855,050 cwts. of flour, 1,286,264 quarters of Indian corn, and 11,401 cwts. of meal. In 1851, the importations were, wheat 3,833,636 quarters, flour 5,363,478 cwts., Indian corn 1,819,782 quarters, and meal 9,562 cwts. In 1852, they were, wheat 3,068,892 quarters, flour 3,889,583 cwts., Indian corn 1,479,891 quarters, and meal 742 cwts. In 1853, they were, wheat 4,945,314 quarters, flour 4,646,400 cwts., Indian corn 1,552,934 quarters, and meal 15,581 cwts. In 1854, there were imported 3,431,222 quarters of wheat, and 3,646,505 cwts. of flour. In 1855, the importations were, wheat 2,667,702 quarters, and 1,904,224 cwts. of flour. In 1856, they were, wheat 4,072,833 quarters, flour 3,970,100 cwts., Indian corn 1,777,813 quarters, and meal 7,880 cwts. In 1857, they were, 3,417,957 quarters of wheat, 2,178,148 cwts. of flour, 1,150,783 quarters of Indian corn, and 1092 cwts of meal. In 1858, they were, 4,275,435 quarters of wheat, 3,890,252 cwts. of flour, 1,762,320 quarters of Indian corn, and 4720 cwts. of meal. The average price of wheat per quarter was 69s. in 1856, 568. 7d. in 1857, and 448. 4d. in 1858. The principal supplies of foreign corn to Great Britain are drawn from Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Mecklenburg, the Hanse Towns, Spain, Turkey, Wallachia, Moldavia, Egypt, the United States, occasionally rather large quantities, especially as flour, from France, some from our own American colonies, and small quantities from various other places. Russia, Prussia, and the United States are the principal contributors. The total computed value of all the corn and meal imported in 1858, including oats, barley, and all the other species, was 19,992,971. CORN-RENT is a money-rent varying in amount according to the fluctuations of the price of corn. In some countries rent is paid in the produce of the land itself; but in no part of the United Kingdom does this primitive custom exist. Some landlords in Ireland, indeed, for the accommodation of their tenants, were accustomed to accept corn in payment of their rent, at the price of the nearest market, and ship it to England for sale; but the rent is calculated in money. (See Appendix F to 'First Report of Poor Laws (Ireland) Commissioners,' 1836, p. 221.) A corn-rent is founded upon the principle that a farm being assumed |