683 DRUM. A movement is being made towards placing under legislative control the sale of drugs, on the ground that frequent cases of poisoning occur through the ignorance or carelessness of retail druggists. The physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries have also endeavoured, at various times, to have the drug trade placed in some degree under professional control. Nothing, however, has yet been effected in this direction. In the "Medical Act," passed in 1858, the new General Council, formed to carry out the provisions of the Act, is empowered to cause to be published under their direction a book containing a list of medicines and compounds, and the manner of preparing them, with the true weights and measures by which they are to be prepared and mixed, and containing such other matters and things relating thereto, as the General Council shall think fit, to be called 'British Pharmacopoeia'; and the General Council shall cause to be altered, amended, and republished such Pharmacopoeia as often as they shall but there is a special clause, exempting chemists and druggists from any interference in the new Council, which represents all the physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries of the three kingdoms. deem necessary; DRUM. [DOME.] DRUSES, DOROUZ. and afterwards, through three or more tubes, to the ball. The vessel The Captain Drummond suggested in a paper which was printed in the DRUM, a pulsatile musical instrument, of which there are three About two years ago a brass drum of improved construction was introduced into the infantry regiments, weighing some three pounds less than the one previously in use, smaller in size and more portable, superior in tone and more easily tuned. This drum is manufactured by Messrs. Key, Rudall, and Co., Charing Cross, London. It is tuned by means of screws, instead of the old straps and ropes: the head which is beaten, called the batter-head, alone requires to be tuned, while the other head, which has three cords called the snare, drawn across its exterior surface, responds by reverberation. Messrs. Key and Co., have also invented a skeleton side drum, that is, a drum with out any shell; it resembles a couple of tambourines with their concavities presented to each other; it is intended for indoor use, and gives the lightest character of tone. DRUMMOND LIGHT. The difficulty of distinguishing the stations chosen for the angular points of the triangles in a geodetical survey, when those stations are many miles asunder, renders it necessary to have recourse to illuminations even in the day-time; and the late Captain Drummond, of the Royal Engineers, invented a heliostat which reflected the sun's rays in sufficient abundance to render the station which was to be observed visible. This was a plane mirror of a rectangular form and mounted on a stand with joints by which it could be fixed at any angle with the horizon. On the stand was a telescope which was capable of being moved horizontally, with the mirror, and directed to the distant station, while another telescope was directed to the sun. The adjustments of the mirror were such that, when the telescopes were directed, as has been said, the face of the mirror reflected the rays of the sun on the distant station, and illumined it sufficiently to render a mark there visible in the telescope of the theodolite by which the required angle was to be taken. A light of this kind may also be employed as a signal in determin The lime light, as it is also called, has superseded the solar microscope, or rather can be used at all times instead of the sun; the oxy-calcium light is in great request for microscopes, phantasmagoria, and scenic mixed gases contained in separate bags, since no safety jets, &c., should effects on the stage, &c. There are some advantages in using the be relied on, but the danger in inexperienced hands is great. We have even known an accident occur in the lecture-room of an eminent chemist. DRUSES, DOROUZ, a people who inhabit the chain of Libanus, in The vernacular language of the Syria, are under the government of their own chiefs, and have a religion peculiar to themselves. Druses is Arabic, though they have a tradition that they came originally from China. Although the mountaineers of Libanus in general obey the emir, or prince of the Druses, yet they are not all Druses, but the greater part of them are Christians of the Maronite coramunion, which belongs to the western, or Roman, church. [MARONITES.] Though much intermixed, they are frequently at war with live chiefly in the south part of Libanus, east and south-east of Beiroot, each other, and such a war was being carried on in 1859. The Druses and as far south as the district of Hasbeya, about the sources of the Jordan, but a few thousands are still found about Jebel-el-'Ala, in Northern Syria, where they were formerly more numerous till expelled by the Mohammedans. At Jeir el' Ashayir, a small village of Druses, there are the ruins of a large and splendid temple, a quadrangle, 90 columns at the angles. Towards the east the jurisdiction of the emir feet by 36 feet within, on a raised platform, ornamented with Ionic North of the Bekaa is the Belad, or Libanus and the Antilibanus. extends over part of the Bekaa, or plain intervening between the under a distinct emir of the sect of the Metawalis, subject to the district of Balbek, which is inhabited chiefly by Mussulmans, and is pasha of Damascus, with whom there are frequent hostilities. The former capital of the Druses was Deir el Kamr, in a valley on the west slope of Libanus, about eight or nine hours' ride south-east of Beiroot (Beyrut): the town is said to have about 8000 inhabitants, partly Druses and partly Christians. The town is built in the Italian When it was required to observe the angles subtended between distant fashion, and is said to resemble a second-rate country town of Italy, but stations at night, the white or blue lights were first employed in this it suffered greatly in the war of 1846. The land around the town country; the materials being fixed, at the station, at times agreed upon displays in a marked manner the industry and skill of the inhabitants, by the parties employed in performing the operations: Argand lamps as it is cultivated with the greatest care, and an almost barren soil with parabolic reflectors, were used by the French, and subsequently made highly productive. The emir used to reside at the palace or by the English geodists; but a light which Captain Drummond ob- castle of Bteddin, about one hour's ride from Deir el Kamr, which is tained has been found to exceed in brilliancy any of the others. This still kept in good order, though not used for his residence. Some of is the oxy-calcium light, and is produced by placing a ball or disk of the apartments of the palace are described as very handsomely furlarge embossed gilt lime, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, in the focus of a para-nished, paved with marble, and adorned with rich folding draperies bolic mirror, at the station to be rendered visible, and directing upon and divans, the walls inlaid with ivory and gilding, and adorned with it, through a flame arising from alcohol, a stream of oxygen gas. passages of the Koran and Scriptures in Arabic, (Philosophical Transactions,' 1826, p. 324.) The cistern containing characters, enclosed in panels of various size. The emir Beshir, as he was called, whom Captain Light saw in 1814, was described as an the alcohol is supported on a stand, behind the reflector, and is connected by a tube of caoutchouc with the lower part of a hollow stem elderly man of an intelligent and prepossessing appearance, and said to supporting the upright wire at the top of which is fixed the ball of be very regular and abstemious in his habits. He had come to the lime on a level nearly with the cistern: the spirit ascends in the stem, sovereignty by defeating several competitors, whom he imprisoned and put to death. (Light's Travels.') In 1822, having supported the rebellious Abdallah, pasha of Acre, he incurred the displeasure of the Porte, and took refuge in Egypt, but returned soon after by the mediation of Mehemet Ali, the pasha of Egypt. At the time of the occupation of Syria by Ibrahim, Mehemet's son, the Druses joined him at first; they afterwards quarrelled with him; but they were beaten, and peace was ultimately restored. Up to 1840 the emir Beshir remained faithful to the Egyptians, but as he did not separate himself before the restoration of Syria to the Turks, he was deprived of his dignity; he then withdrew, first to Malta, and afterwards to Constantinople, vainly soliciting his restoration. Kassim was named emir Beshir in his stead. The Druses and the Maronites again commenced nostilities between themselves, of which the Turks took advantage, in order to weaken their power. The civil war endured for upwards of two years, when the Porte displaced the emir el Kassim, and appointed Omar Pasha as administrator. His arbitrary conduct caused the Druses to unite with the Maronites, and both broke out into insurrection against the Turkish dominion. The Christian powers interfered, Omar Pasha was recalled, and a Turkish kaimakan appointed. This produced a partial suspension of hostilities, but the Druses still continued to acknowledge only their own chief, and in this state the country yet continues; while the Maronites sometimes have a chief of their own, and sometimes submit to the chief of the Druses. The emir has under him several subordinate emirs, or local chiefs, in various districts of the mountains, some of whom are Druses and others Maronites. As the whole population is armed and trained to the use of the gun, it is said that in case of need the emir can collect in a very short time 30,000 men; but this must be only part of the individuals capable of bearing arms, as the Maronite population alone is said to be more than 200,000, and the Druses are stated by Mr. Paton (The Modern Syrians,' 1841), to be about 70,000. The Druses are divided into two classes: the Akkal and the Jukhal, the initiated and the ignorant. No religious duties are imposed, but their creed includes a belief in the unity of God's five superior spiritual messengers, including Hamza and Christ; in the transmigration of souls; in the triumph of their religion; and in the renunciation of the seven points of Islamism. The Akkals make an assumption of superior morality; they neither smoke tobacco nor drink spirituous liquors; they use no bad language; and profess to abhor falsehood, but do not scruple to exercise equivocation. They meet for religious purposes every Friday evening at an hour after dusk, when they read extracts from their religious books. All the Druse women are taught to read and write. The penalty of death, it is said, would be incurred by any one who should turn Mussulman or Christian. They make no proselytes. As to the nature of their secret doctrine, we have an account of it in De Sacy's Chrestomathie Arabe,' vol. ii.; but how far it can be relied upon is still a question with some, as it depends upon the authenticity of the books from which De Sacy has extracted it. It is doubtful whether in fact there are any secret doctrines. It appears however pretty certain that the Druses are, or were originally, disciples of Hakem biamr Illa, the sixth Fatimite caliph of Egypt, who in the 11th century proclaimed himself to be an incarnation of the Divinity, and who established a secret lodge at Cairo, divided into nine degrees, the last of which taught the superfluousness of all religions, the indifference of human actions, &c. (Von Hammer, 'Geschichte der Assassinen,' 1818.) The Assassins themselves were a derivation of Hakem's sect, which was itself an offshoot of the great schism of the Ismaelites, a remnant of whom still exists in Syria, in the mountains east of Tortosa, near their ancient stronghold Maszyad. Hakem disappeared, probably by assassination, in one of his solitary walks near Cairo, but his disciples expect his return, when he is to reign over the world. The Assassins, however, now called Ansayrii, are distinct from the Druses, with whom there are frequently hostile conflicts, though the emir Beshir has a nominal sovereignty over them. All agree, however, in saying that all these sects, Druses, Maronites, and Ansayrii, are industrious, brave, and hospitable: their country is a land of refuge from Turkish oppression; they pay few taxes, as the emir has lands or domains belonging to him, from which he draws his chief revenue. Silk is the staple article for exportation, by way of Beiroot. The mulberry, the vine, the fig, and other fruit-trees, are reared in the lower ridges of the Libanus, while the higher range affords good pastures. Cotton is also cultivated and manufactured. The plains, especially the Bekaa, produce corn. There are a number of convents scattered about the mountains; there is a Maronite college for the study of Syriac at Aain el Warka, and another for the Melchite students at Deir el Mhalles. Burckhardt, who crossed the Libanus in different directions, gives the names of many towns or villages inhabited by Druses and Maronites, some of them considerable places, such as Hasbeya, with 700 houses; Zahle, in the Bekaa, with 900, this is now the residence of the emir Beshir, or chief; Shirrei, near Tripoli, &c. The Druses dress differently from the Maronites: the men wear a coarse woollen beneesh, or cloak, black, with white stripes, thrown over a waistcoat, and loose breeches of the same stuff, tied round the waist by a sash of white or red linen with fringed ends; their turban is swelled out from the head into a shape resembling a turnip, and flat at the top. The women wear a coarse blue jacket and petticoat, without any stockings, and their hair plaited and hanging down in tails behind. When they dress they put on their head the Takeel, a hollow tube of silver or tin, from six to twelve inches high, shaped like a truncated cone; this cone is worn even by young female children whom Mr. Paton says he has seen adorned with it while sleeping in bed. Over this cone when the ladies are full dressed is thrown a white piece of linen, which completely envelopes the body; they also wear silver bobs tied to their tresses. DRY PILE, a voltaic arrangement originally intended to consist of solid elements. [GALVANISM.] DRY ROT, a term very incorrectly given to a species of decomposition and destruction of the wood used in constructive operations, arising from the fermentation of the alburnum of the sap retained in the wood (under the influence of moist warmth and confined air); and the subsequent growth of a fungoid excrescence, which destroys the cohesion of the fibres of the wood to such an extent as to reduce it to a powder. It is from the latter phenomenon that the peculiar action known as the "dry rot" takes its name, though, unquestionably, the action itself is not properly speaking a dry one. It is usually considered that wood felled at those periods of the year in which the sap is rising in the trees is more exposed to this species of decay than when it has been felled later in the season; but, in fact, it would appear that the really important condition to be attained in employing any description of wood is, that a free circulation of air should be maintained around it in every direction. There have been suggested a countless number of processes for the prevention of dry rot; amongst the most successful of which may be cited Kyan's process, or the use of a solution of the bichloride of mercury; Payne's process, or the use of the sulphate and muriate of lime and the sulphate of iron in solution; Margary's process, or the use of a solution of the sulphate of copper; Burnett's process, or the use of a solution of the chloride of zinc; Boucherie's process, or the use of the pyrolignite of iron; and Bethell's process, or the use of creosote, with a small proportion of the pyrolignite of iron. It seems, nevertheless, that the results of all these processes are at the best uncertain; and it therefore behoves the builder carefully to select the soundest timber for the bearings in walls, and such other positions wherein it may be exposed to damp; and, above all things, to leave as much space as possible around the bearings, and to secure a free circulation of air about them. There are some valuable treatises by Faraday and by Birkbeck on the subject of the prevention of dry rot, based upon the principles mentioned here. DRYING MACHINES. A valuable improvement has been made within the last few years in the mode of drying textile fabrics which have been bleached or otherwise wetted. In the ordinary mode of drying by exposure to the open air, the moisture gradually evaporates; in a hot room this evaporation is expedited; but in the drying machine the mechanical principle of centrifugal force is applied in a singular way. A drying machine was brought into use in Paris in 1839, by Messrs. Penzolt and Levesque. It acted on the centrifugal system. It consisted of two drums or cylinders, one within the other; the inner one being pierced with holes. The textile goods, wetted by the process of washing, scouring, or bleaching, were placed within the inner cylinder, which was then made to revolve with a rapidity of 4000 turns in a minute; the cloth was driven forcibly against the perforated surface, and the water driven through the holes with such irresistible force that the cloth became nearly dry in three or four minutes. In 1844 Messrs Keeley and Alliott, of Nottingham, patented a very elaborate machine to facilitate the scouring, bleaching, or dyeing of cloth. The same inventors had before introduced a machine very similar in principle to that of Messrs. Penzolt and Levesque; but in the new machine, the cloth is put into a certain compartment, the bleaching or scouring liquid into another compartment, and the machine is made to revolve rapidly; the centrifugal force generated by the movement drives the liquid speedily and effectually through every pore of the cloth-leaving the cloth instantly afterwards almost in a state of dryness, and bleached likewise. This principle, the application of centrifugal force to produce a drying action, is now very extensively adopted; the methods vary considerably in detail, but their general arrangement may be understood from the above two examples. DUAL NUMBER. The Greek, Sanscrit, and Gothic of ancient, and the Lithuanian of modern languages, in addition to the undefined plural which they share with other tongues, possess also forms of the verb and noun in which two persons or things are denoted, called the dual number. On a careful consideration of the suffixes which are supposed to convey this notion, there seems reason for believing that the idea of duality was not originally contained in them, but simply that of unlimited plurality. The suffix of plurality which belongs to the Indo-Teutonic languages seems to have had two forms, en and es, as in the English housen and houses. Thus the Greeks had two forms for the first person plural of their verbs active, tuptomen and tuptomes. In the second person, the Latin language gives the suffix tis, scribitis; probably the Greek, in its oldest character, would have presented us with a suffix tes, but the forms of that language which have come down to us give only the abbreviated te, tuptete. But if there existed a double form for the 897 DUCAT, DUCATOON. second person as well as for the first, we should in that case have also tupteten, or rather tupteton, seeing that to the Greek ear ton was a more familiar termination. In the third person the dual ton might well represent a plural, as the oldest form of that person in the singular gives a suffix ti, esti; and this, with the plural termination n, would produce a syllable which might readily take the same shape as the second person dual. In the nouns the same analogy prevails. The nominatives and genitives of the dual and plural differ no more than might be expected in two dialects: in the dative, the difference consists in the one number having a final n, the other an s; while the accusative dual has lost the final sigma, a fate common enough with that letter in the Greek language, as may be seen even in the plural nominatives, mousai, logoi, which the analogy of the other declensions proves to have once possessed that letter. We have already seen an example of the same loss in the second person plural of the verb. Similarly in the Lithuanian from pona "master," we have a pl. ac. ponùs, dual ac. ponù; pl. dat. pónāms, dual dat. pónām. In the pronouns, again, the same confusion of the two numbers prevails. Thus the Greek dual of the pronoun I contains the very same element, no, which in the Latin is appropriated to the plural. In the Gothic verb the same principle may be traced. A specimen may be seen in the second person dual which has the suffix, ts, a form more closely approaching the old plural suffix tis, which has been above mentioned, than even the th, which is the suffix of the same person in the plural. Again in the Lithuanian, while the first person plural of the verb, which ends in me, has derived that suffix from the older form mas, or mes, the dual of the same person ends in va, which has a strong resemblance to our plural we, while the plural and dual of the second person have for suffixes respectively te and ta, both originating in an earlier tas or tes. The same observation applies to the Sanscrit verb of the Parasmaipadam form of the potential and imperative moods, and of the preterits called by Bopp "Præteritum augmentatum uniforme et multiforme." The terminations of the first persons of the dual and plural respectively in the present of the Parasmaipadam are was and mas; of the second and third persons dual respectively, thas and tas; and of the second person plural, tha. If it be admitted then that the dual in its origin was not confined to the notion of two, it remains to consider how that notion was superadded. Perhaps the following may not be an unreasonable conjecture. In many countries there are two or more dialects co-existing, one among the educated and in towns, which we may call the language of books; the other, the older and more natural language of the district, not yet wholly supplanted by the former. In the places of public meeting, whether for religious or political purposes, the dialect which happens to belong to the more educated class will prevail, while the other, as genuine, though not so fortunate a dialect, will still maintain its ground by the fireside. The former will be addressed to hundreds, the latter commonly to one or two individuals. Hence the colloquial and familiar dialect of the cottage may well be borrowed by even the public speaker when speaking of two persons; and thus the notion of duality, which at first was only accidentally united with a certain suffix, becomes in the end the inseparable and essential meaning thereof. Something parallel to this may be seen in the double forms of the English verb to be. While am, art, is, are honoured by the favour of the learned, the unlearned still retain, and with as good a title, the genuine forms be, best, bes, or be. These are both indicatives, yet it is already a common practice to look upon the latter set of forms as conOf course what has been here said does not two' stituting a subjunctive. apply to forms in which a visible representation of the idea “ presents itself, as in the Lithuanian tudu, "these two," from ta," this," anudu, "those two," from an, "that." An interesting discussion by William Humboldt on the dual is printed in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin,' for the year 1827 (Abhandlungen der historich-philologischen Klasse der Königlichen Academie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,' aus dem Jahr 1827, p. 161-107), to which we refer our readers, though the views explained in that essay differ from those of the present article. DUCAT, DUCATOON. [MONEY.] DUCTILITY is that property of bodies, and more especially of certain metals, in virtue of which they can be drawn out in length, while their diameter is diminished without any actual fracture or solution of continuity; in other words, it is upon this property that the wire-drawing of metals depends. The following is given in most chemical books as the order of ductility of the metals which possess the property in the highest degree; that of the first-mentioned being the greatest: gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, palladium, cadmium. This list would appear to require revision, and it would be very desirable to be able so to represent the ductility of the various metals numerically. In the wire trade considerable confusion exists in the gauge, that used in Birmingham for iron wire differing from that used for gold, silver, &c., while both differ from the Lancashire gauge for round steel wire. What is wanted is a scientific inquiry for the purpose of determining the order and amount of ductility of the various metals. In our best books on chemistry the statements are loose, and unsatisfactory. Thus in Gmelius, 'Handbook of Chemistry,' (Cavendish Society's Translation), it is stated (vi. DUELLING. 1 1 th of an inch in thickness, thus confoundhammered into leaves 2,000 204) that gold is the most ductile of the metals, because it can be ing malleability and ductility, which are different properties. It is further stated, that one grain of gold may be made to cover 56-75 manner it is stated that silver can be beaten out into leaves 0.00001 inch in thickness; while one grain of the metal can be drawn into a square inches; or be drawn into a wire 500 feet in length. In like wire 400 feet in length. On referring however to platinum, the duetility is at once ascertained, because Dr. Wollaston has furnished accurate data on the subject. Platinum alone can be drawn into a wire th of an inch in thickness, but when protected by being not coherent in long enclosed in a silver wire, it may be gradually reduced to th of an inch in thickness, but in such case the wire pieces.* The circumstance that silver is soluble in nitric acid, and platinum not, allows this artifice to be practised, for after having drawn the compound wire to its extreme limit, the silver can be washed off in nitric acid, leaving its central core of platinum thus considerably reduced. In the above list, a low degree of ductility is given to metal to be somewhat less ductile than platinum. Both platinum and palladium, which is clearly wrong, for the latest authorities state this palladium can be rolled out into thin leaves or foil, but their malleability is very inferior to that of gold and silver, and even copper. wire; sheet iron has been produced theth of an inch in thickness. Copper and iron are said to be capable of being drawn out into very thin Between the temperatures of 100° and 150°, zinc may be extended into line texture. Tin cannot be drawn into fine wires, but nickel may be thin plates and wires, heat being required to get rid of the crystalhammered either cold or hot into platesth of an inch in thickness, also, that cadmium is wrongly placed, since it can be easily beaten out and drawn out into wires th of an inch in diameter. It is probable into thin plates, or drawn into wires, whereas tin cannot be drawn into a fine wire. Hence it appears that although the malleability and ductility of metals are connected, they are not always in the same proportion; iron, for example, though very ductile, cannot be beaten into very thin lamina. The difference between ductility and malleaof the metals; the malleable metals may be conceived to consist of bility has been ascribed to the figure and arrangement of the particles [WIREover each other; the one slide by their flat surfaces, the other lengthen small plates, and the ductile metals of minute fibres placed beside or and exert an adhesion from one extremity to the other. DRAWING.] The Ductility is not confined to the metals. Glass at a red heat possesses the property in a remarkable degree. If a rod of glass be heated at the enameller's lamp, and a portion of it drawn out and attached to a wheel, which is then to be turned rapidly, it will be encircled by a one diameter being three or four times larger than the other. number of coils of very fine glass thread with an elliptical section, Hand-spun yarns often present flexibility of these fibres is almost equal to those of the spider's web, water also form a ductile mass. which is also a good instance of ductility. Certain clays mixed with threads surprisingly fine and perfect, some flax-yarns in the Great Exhibition of 1851 being what are technically known as 1200's warp, and 1600's weft. DUELLING. The rise of the practice of duelling is to be referred to the trial by battle which obtained in early ages, jointly with the single combat or tournament of the age of chivalry, which again most trial by battle, or duel (as it was also called), was resorted to, in probably owed its own existence to the early trial by battle. The accordance with the superstitious notions of the time, as a sure means of determining the guilt or innocence of a person charged with a crime, care to see that, in every case, innocence was vindicated and justice or of adjudicating a disputed right. It was thought that God took observed. The trial by battle was introduced into England by William the Conqueror, and established in three cases; namely, in the courtmartial or court of chivalry, in appeals of felony, and in civil cases upon issue joined in a writ of right. Once established as a mode given rise to it had died away, and was resorted to for the purof trial, the duel was retained after the superstition which had pose of wreaking vengeance, or gaining reputation by the display of courage. Then came the age of chivalry, with its worship of punctilio and personal prowess, its tilts and tournaments, and the duel, originally a mode of trial established by law, became in time (what it now is) a practice dependent on fashion or certain conventional rules It is an instance of the length of time for which abused and imof honour. * In Moseley's Illustrations of Mechanics' (1839), the finest platinum wire th of an inch in diameter, which is evidently a clerical is said to be blunder, or a printer's mistake, in putting two ciphers too many. Yet we find this mistake repeated in Dr. Golding Bird's 'Natural Philosophy' (1854), and, as if to remove all doubt in the matter, the fraction, which we have no means of The finest of these wires is but one three-millionth of an inch in diameter, and 140 of them placed together measuring, is printed in words instead of figures. would just equal in thickness a single fibre of silk." It is remarkable that this 1 3,000,000 66 on referring to his paper contained in the Phil. Trans.' (1813, p. 114), that his 30,000 proper obsolete laws are often allowed to encumber the English statute-book, that the trial by battle in appeals of felony and writs of right was only abolished in 1818. An appeal of felony had been brought in the previous year, in a case of murder, and the appellee had resorted to his right of demanding wager of battle (Ashford v. Thornton, 1 Barn. and Ald. 405). The appeal was not proceeded with, so that the barbarous encounter did not take place. [APPEAL.] The law of England makes no distinction between the killing of a man in a duel and other species of murder: and the seconds of both parties are also guilty of murder. But the practice of duelling has been maintained against laws human and divine; and it may be well to enter a little into the reasons of this practice, without reference to its illegality, or to its variance, which no one will dispute, with Christianity. The professed object of a duel is satisfaction. The affronter professes to have satisfied the man whom he has affronted, and the challenger professes to have been satisfied by the man whom he has challenged, after they have fired, or have had an opportunity of firing, pistols at one another. That this satisfaction is of the nature of reparation, is of course out of the question. Satisfaction in this its most obvious sense, or reparation for an injury, cannot be effected by the injured man firing at his injurer, and being fired at in return. itself concerning the courage of the two persons, who (the one having affronted and the other having been affronted) are in a situation in which, according to custom or fashion, a duel takes place. Public opinion then is diverted by the practice of duelling from the affront to the extraneous consideration of the courage of the two parties. It censures the man who has given the affront only if he shrinks from a duel; and even goes so far as to censure the man who has received the affront for the same reason. Thus in a case where a man, reckless of exposing his life, is disposed to give affronts, he is certain that he can avert censure for an affront by being ready to fight a duel; and in a case where a bold or reckless man is disposed to affront one who is timid, or a man expert with the pistol one who is a bad shot, he can reckon on the man whom he affronts refusing to fight, and on censure being thus diverted from himself who has given an affront to him who has shown want of courage. Secondly, the practice of duelling is disadvantageous, as increasing the amount of injury which one man can do to another by an affront. Thirdly, the practice of duelling affords means for the gratification of vengeance; and thus tends to hurt the characters of individuals, by the encouragement both of that feeling, and of hypocrisy in those who, thirsting for vengeance, and daring not to own it, profess (in the common ambiguous phrase) to be seeking for satisfaction. Such are the evil effects of the practice of duelling; and there being no list of good effects to set against them, it follows immediately that the tendency of the practice is, on the whole, evil. There arises, then, the question, how is it to be got rid of? The satisfaction furnished by a duel is of a different sort, and of a Fourthly (which is the most important consideration), there are the sort which, were it distinctly comprehended, would at once show the evils entailed by the deaths which the practice of duelling brings absurdity of the practice; it is a satisfaction occasioned by the know-about-evils entailed both on the persons dying, and on their surviving ledge that, by standing fire, the challenger has shown his courage, and relatives and friends. It is an evil that a man should be cut off from that the world cannot call him coward. Now it is clear that there life "unhouseled, unappointed, unaneled." It is an evil that he should would be no reason for dissatisfaction on this point, previous to the be taken from relatives and friends to whom his life is, in different fighting of the duel, and therefore no reason for seeking satisfaction of ways and degrees, a source of happiness; from parents who have this sort, were it not that the practice of duelling existed. Were men centred in him their hopes, and to whom, in their declining years, he not in the habit of fighting duels, and therefore not expected to expose might be a comfort, or from a wife and children who look to him for themselves to fire after having received an affront, there would be no support. ground for calling their courage into question, and therefore no necessity for satisfying themselves that the world thinks them courageous. The practice of duelling thus causes the evil which it is called in to remedy, the injury for which it is required to administer satisfaction. And every one who saw this would immediately see the absurdity of Were a man who had killed his antagonist in a duel compelled by the practice. But the word satisfaction is conveniently ambiguous. the law to support, or assist in supporting, some of his surviving When one speaks of it, or hears it spoken of, one thinks of that satis-relatives, this, so far as it would go, would be a punishment popular faction which means reparation for an injury, and which is not and efficacious. Public opinion would then infallibly be against the the satisfaction furnished by the duel. Thus are men the dupes of man who, having incurred the penalty, should endeavour to avoid it. words. And such a punishment as this would furthermore be superior to the punishment of death, as being susceptible of graduation—as furnishing reparation to a portion of those who have been most injured, and as preserving the offender, that he may have all those opportunities, which his natural life will afford him, of improving himself and of benefiting others. The real object then of the duel is, in most cases, to satisfy the person who provokes it, or who sends the challenge, that the world does not suspect him of a want of courage; and it will be useful to observe, in passing, that the duel furnishes this sort of satisfaction as well to the man who gave the affront, as to him who was affronted. | Its object also, in certain cases, is doubtless to gratify the vengeance of the man who has received an affront. But in all cases the object which is professed, or generally understood to be professed, of satisfaction in the sense of reparation for the affront, is no more than a pretence. But though the practice of duelling cannot effect the good of repairing an injury, it may very possibly effect other sorts of good. The advantage of the practice of duelling is generally said to consist in its tendency to increase courtesy and refinement of manners; as it will be a reason for a man to abstain from giving an affront, that he will be subjected in consequence to the fire of a pistol. Now it is clear in the first place, that all the affronts which are constituted reasons or grounds of duels by fashion, or the law of honour or public opinion, are so constituted because they are judged by public opinion deserving of disapprobation. If then the practice of duelling did not exist, public opinion, which now constitutes these affronts grounds of a duel, as being deserving of disapprobation, would still condemn them, and, condemning them, provide men with a reason to abstain from them. Thus there would still exist a reason to abstain, in all cases in which the practice of duelling now provides a reason. But, in the second place, the practice of duelling itself depends on public opinion alone. A man fights because public opinion judges that he who in certain cases refuses to challenge or to accept a challenge is deserving of disapprobation: he fights from fear of public opinion. If he abstain from giving an affront on account of the existence of the practice of duelling, it is because the fear of public opinion would oblige him to fight; he abstains then from fear of public opinion. Now we have seen that there would be the fear of public opinion to deter him from the affronts which now lead to duels, if the practice of duelling did not exist. Thus the practice of duelling does not in any case provide a reason to abstain, which public opinion would not provide without its aid. As a means then of increasing courtesy and refinement of manners, the practice of duelling is unnecessary; and inasmuch as its tendency to polish manners is the only advantage which can, with any show of probability, be ascribed to it, there will be no good effects whatever to set against the evil effects which we now proceed to enumerate. There will be no difficulty in striking the balance between good and evil. First, the practice of duelling is disadvantageous, inasmuch as it often diminishes the motives to abstain from an affront. We have seen that the existence of this practice leads public opinion to enjoy ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. III. A mild and judicious legislation would tend to guide and improve public opinion; whereas such a legislation as the present tends only to confirin it in its evil ways. And as legislation may and should assist the formation of a right public opinion, so is it possible and desirable to operate independently on public opinion, either that the absence of good legislation may, as far as is possible, be compensated for, or that good legislation may be assisted. This operation on public opinion must be brought about by the endeavours of individuals. It is the duty of each man to oppose this practice to the utmost extent of his power, both by precept and example,-to abstain from challenging when he has received an affront, and to refuse a challenge when he is considered to have given one, making public in both cases, so far as his situation allows, his reasons for the course which he takes, and thus producing an impression against the practice as widely as he can. In the second of these two cases, he must either be able to defend, or he must apologise for, that which was considered an affront. If he can defend it, or show that the evil to the person insulted was overbalanced by the good accruing to others, he refuses rightly to be fired at for having been the author of a benefit; or, if unable to defend the affront, he apologises for it, he performs a manly and a rational part in refusing to fire at a man whose feelings he has wantonly injured. This duty is peculiarly incumbent on public men, whose sphere of influence is larger, and whose means of producing good effects by example are therefore greater, than those of others. A public man who should at all times refuse to challenge or to accept a challenge, resting his refusal on the ground of the evil tendency of duelling, not of the infraction of some other duty which an accident has in his case connected with it (as the violation of an oath), and who should at the same time preserve himself from suspicion or reproach by circumspection in speech, by a manly defence, where it is possible, and, where it is not, by a manly apology, would be a mighty aid for the extirpation of this practice. The following three new articles of war were issued in the course of the year 1844, with a view to the abatement of duelling in the army:- 1. Every officer who shall give or send a challenge, or who shall accept any challenge to fight a duel with another officer, or who, being privy to an intention to fight a duel, shall not take active measures to prevent such duel, or who shall upbraid another for refusing or for not giving a challenge, or who shall reject or advise the rejection, of a XX DUET. reasonable proposition made for the honourable adjustment of a differ- 66 The English word duke is from the French duc, which originally was used to signify a man of the sword (a soldier) and of merit who guide," or a led troops." The remote origin is the Latin dux, a "military commander." The word is used by the Latin writers to signify generally any one who has military command, but sometimes imperator," comdux," as an inferior officer, is contrasted with " Under the Lower Empire, dux was the title of a mander in chief. provincial general, who had a command in the provinces. In the time of Constantine there were thirty-five of these military commanders stationed in different parts of the empire, who were all duces or dukes, because they had military command. Ten of these dukes were also honoured with the title of comtes [COUNT], or counts. (Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' &c., cap. 17.) The German word herzog, which corresponds to our duke, signifies "a leader of an army." The first person created a duke in England was Edward, Prince of Wales, commonly called the Black Prince. He was created Duke of Cornwall in parliament, in 1335, the eleventh year of King Edward III. In 1350, Henry, the king's cousin, was created Duke of Lancaster, and when he died, in 1361, his daughter and heir having married John of Gaunt, the king's son, he was created Duke of Lancaster, his elder brother Lionel being made at the same time Duke of Clarence. The two younger sons of King Edward III. were not admitted to this high dignity in the reign of their father: but in the reign of Richard II., their nephew Edmund was made Duke of York, and Thomas, Duke of Gloucester. The dignity was thus at the beginning kept within the circle of The persons who were next admitted to this high dignity were of 1358. DUKE. an illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, who was created by King Henry King Henry VIII. created only two dukes, and both were persons Queen Elizabeth found on her accession only one duke, Thomas extinguished the others. He was an ambitious nobleman, and aspiring Howard, Duke of Norfolk, attainder or failure of male issue having was convicted of treason, beheaded, and his dignity extinguished in to marry the Queen of Scotland, Elizabeth became jealous of him: he 1572; and from that time there was no duke in the English peerage except the sons of King James I., till 1623, when Ludovick Stuart, soon expired. In 1627, George Villiers was created Duke of Buckingthe king's near relative, was made Duke of Richmond, which honour ham, and he and his son were the only dukes in England till the civil the king's nephew, best known by the name of Prince Rupert, Duke wars, when another of the Stuarts was made Duke of Richmond, and of Cumberland. In the first year after the return of Charles II. from exile, he Monk, the great instrument of his return, Duke of Albemarle. In restored the Seymours to their rank of Dukes of Somerset, and created In 1664, he restored to the Howards the title of Duke 1663, he began to introduce his illegitimate issue into the peerage under the title of duke, his son James being made in that year Duke of Monmouth. of Norfolk; and in 1665 he created a Cavendish, who had held a high military command in the civil war, Duke of Newcastle. In 1682, he created the Marquis of Worcester Duke of Beaufort. As for the rest the dignity was granted only to issue of the king or to their mothers. his natural son. The only duke created by King James II. was the Duke of Berwick, Of the families now existing, beside those who are descended from King Charles II., only the Howards, the Seymours, and the Somersets In 1799 this date their dukedoms from before the Revolution. The existing dukedoms originally given by Charles II. to his sons are Grafton, Richmond, and St. Albans. To the Duke of Richmond Charles granted letters The Duke of patent which entitled him to a tonnage duty on coal. Grafton is still paid a pension of 58431. a-year out of the Excise duty was commuted for an annuity of 19,000l. a year. The Duke of revenue, and 34077. out of the Post-office revenue. St. Albans is Hereditary Grand Falconer of England. Under King William and Queen Anne several families which had previously enjoyed the title of earls were advanced to dukedoms, as Paulet Duke of Bolton, Talbot Duke of Shrewsbury, Osborne Duke of Leeds, Russell Duke of Churchill Duke of Marlborough, Sheffield Duke of Buckinghamshire, Bedford, Cavendish Duke of Devonshire, Holles Duke of Newcastle, of Dover, Gray Duke of Kent, Hamilton Duke of Brandon; besides Manners Duke of Rutland, Montagu Duke of Montagu, Douglas Duke members of the royal family and Marshal Schomberg, who was made an English peer as Duke of Schomberg. This great accession gave an entirely new character to the dignity. King George I., besides the dukedoms in his own family, made Bertie Duke of Ancaster, Pierrepoint Duke of Kingston, Pelham Duke of Newcastle, Bentinck Duke of Portland, Wharton Duke of Wharton, Brydges Duke of Chandos, Campbell Duke of Greenwich, Montagu Duke of Manchester, Sackville no duke out of his own family, and the only addition he can be said to Duke of Dorset, and Egerton Duke of Bridgewater. George II. created tion of the Pelham dukedom of Newcastle so as to comprehend the have made to this branch of the peerage, was by enlarging the limitaClintons, by whom the dukedom is now possessed. From 1720 to In that year the representative of the ancient house of Percy 1766, there was no creation of an English duke except in the royal was made Duke of Northumberland, and the title of Duke of Montagu, house. which had become extinct, was revived in the Brudenels, the heirs. mainder of the reign; and during the reign of George IV. no dukedom The same forbearance to confer this dignity existed during the rewas created out of the royal house, till the eminent services of the Duke of Wellington marked him out as deserving the honour of the highest rank which the king has it in his power to confer. His dukedom was created in 1814, forty-seven years after the creation of a Duke of Northumberland. The Marquis of Buckingham was advanced a hundred years, namely, from 1720 to 1822, only four families were to the rank of Duke of Buckingham and Chandos in 1822, so that for admitted to this honour. |