amounted to nearly 30,000, were now not more than 5000, such havoc had been made amongst them by famine and the sword. The reduction of Rochelle put an end to religious wars in France. One of the great objects of Richelieu's policy being thus attained, his next was the still more difficult one of reducing to obedience the nobles of the state, always ready to enter into negociations with Spain, and to revolt against the royal authority. The princes, and the nobility, on the other hand, were fully aware of Richelieu's intentions, and consequently they were continually forming plots against his power and his life. Richelieu commenced the execution of his plans by imprisoning the marshal Ornano, the confident and favourite of the king's brother, the duke of Orleans. The grand prior, the duke de Vendôme and the count de Chalas were next arrested, and the latter was executed, with circumstances of great cruelty, on the 19th August, 1726. François de Montmorency, duke de Boutteville, and the count de Chapelles, were the next victims; they suffered upon the scaffold for having broken the king's ordinance against duels. The differences between Richelieu and Mary de Medicis arose upon the former's return from Rochelle. Mary exerted all her influence with the king to procure the dismissal of the minister from his court and councils, and at length obtained from him the promise so to do. While this important event was daily expected, arrived the 11th of November, 1630, a day rendered famous in history by the appellation of the day of dupes. The ascendency (power) of the queenmother appeared decided. The report of Richelieu's disgrace became publicly known. Mary even received the congratulations of the courtiers; and the foreign ambassadors had already informed their courts of the great change. Whilst Mary, intoxicated with her success, was receiving the homage of her flatterers, and disposing, in anticipation (beforehand), of places and honours, Richelieu arrives at Versailles and presents himself before the king, who already had begun to regret the resolution he had come to; "In you" said he to the cardinal " I possess a faithful and attached servant; and I consider myself the more obliged to protect you, as I have witnessed your respect and gratitude for the queen my mother. Be assured of my support. I shall find means to destroy the

cabal (plot) formed against you by your enemies, who take advantage of the too easy credulity of the queen my mother. Continue to serve me as you have hitherto done, with fidelity, and I will defend you against all those who have conspired your ruin." Some idea may be conceived of the vast change which took place in the conduct of the courtiers both towards the queen and Richelieu, when the news of the latter's restoration to favour became known, the Luxembourg, (the queen's palace) was deserted by the sycophants (vile flatterers) who hastened to overwhelm Richelieu with the basest servilities by way of atonement for their desertion of him. Now came the day of vengeance, nor was the best blood of France, then shed to glut the vindictive cardinal, sufficient to appease him; he stopped not until he had driven the queen-mother into banishment.

When he had thus signalized and established his power at home, and by the energy of his measures had made France respected abroad; when he had discovered the dangerous conspiracy formed against him by De Thou and Cinq Mars, and caused them to expiate their treachery on the scaffold; when, in short, his ascendancy both in and out of France, appeared no longer doubtful; when nothing now remained for him but to enjoy his triumphs and to make free use of unlimited and irresponsible (not liable to be called to account) power, death came to surprise him, and extinguished that genius which had astonished the world and confounded his enemies. Louis informed of the cardinal's danger, paid him a visit on the 2nd December, 1642. "Sire" said Richelieu to him "receive my last farewell. In bidding adieu to your majesty, I have the consolation of leaving your kingdom more powerful than it has ever been, and all your enemies subdued. The only recompence I ask from you in return, is that you will continue your goodness and favour towards my nephews and other relatives; I shall give them my blessing upon one condition only-that they shall serve you always with inviolable fidelity. The council of your majesty is composed of persons competent (able) to serve you with effect, and your majesty will therefore act wisely in retaining them near your sacred person." Richelieu fulfilled with great scrupulosity (exactness) all the religious ceremonies enjoined by the church. On the 3rd, at day.

break, he expressed his wish to receive extreme unction (one of the sacraments of the catholic church). The curate of Saint Eustache told him that a person of his rank might, with propriety, dispense with all the formalities which Christians of an inferior degree were expected to observe. Richelieu, convinced by nature of the nothingness of all human grandeur, and little affected in his last moments by any feelings of pride, repelled the flattery which pursued him even to his death-bed; he performed all the required ceremonies, and in short, omitted nothing which religion, decency, and the spirit of that age required from a man of his character and profession. He died on the 4th December, 1642, at the age of 54 years.

READING LI.

GASPARD DE GUZMAN, COUNT D'OLIVAREZ, PRIME MINISTER OF PHILIP IV. OF SPAIN, DIED

1645.

THIS celebrated minister was born at Rome, in the year 1587, whilst his father, the second count of Olivarez, filled the office of Spanish ambassador, at the papal court of Sextus V. Upon quitting the University of Salamanca, where he had particularly distinguished himself by considerable talents, he was presented at the court of Philip III. Having thus made his first step, he applied himself most assiduously to gain the favour and good opinion of the Infant (the eldest son of the king) who was afterwards Philip IV. His efforts were so far crowned with success, that in the year 1621, upon the accession of Philip IV. who was only sixteen years of age when his father died, Olivarez was called to take upon himself the administration of the kingdom. He was then thirty-two years old, and one of his first acts was to dismiss the old duke of Lerma, who after having governed Spain under Philip III. considered himself as the natural Mentor or director of his successor. Olivarez undeceived, him; but he at first dissembled his ambition, by leaving the title of prime minister to Don Balthasar. This act of hypocrisy

redoubled the friendship of Philip IV. for him, who expressed his satisfaction by bestowing on him the title of duke of San Lucar, and from that moment Olivarez was always addressed as the count-duke. His affected modesty lasted only three or four months, after which time he deprived his uncle of the reins of government, and manifested his presumption by giving the boy-king the title of "great" a title neither confirmed by his contemporaries nor by posterity.

Europe had at this period, amongst its other misfortunes, that of seeing three young kings governed by favourites;-Buckingham in England, Olivarez in Spain, and Richelieu in France. All these three detested each other. The hatred of the first of the three was terminated by his death, as we have seen, in 1628. Richelieu's most anxious object was to humble the house of Austria; while the policy of Olivarez, on the contrary, was not only to secure for it the dominion of entire Germany, but also to recover the United Provinces, which had separated themselves from Spain. One of the chief obstacles to the ambitious projects of the Spanish minister, was the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany; but the death of that gallant monarch giving him fresh energy he dispatched an army of twenty thousand men to the assistance of the emperor Ferdinand, in order to repair the disastrous battle of Lutzen; but this aid was given upon the condition that Austria in its turn should assist him in again reducing the United States beneath the Spanish yoke. Notwithstanding all these efforts, Holland, fortunately, preserved its independence. Unsuccessful in all his attempts against France, he became unpopular, and increased still more the general dissatisfaction as well as the hatred of the nobles, by the arrogance (haughtiness) of his manners, and by the enormous sacrifices which he required from all ranks. The favourite exasperated (enraged) the nation still further by the threat he had thrown out, of subjecting to one uniform and absolute government the different provinces of Spain The Catalonians, jealous of their privileges, rose in arms against a detested minister, massacred their viceroy, and drove out the royal army. Olivarez carried his presumption so far as to congratulate himself upon a revolt which afforded him a pretext for avenging his own injuries, and

accomplishing his plan of despotism. But a fresh army, raised at a great expense, was repulsed before Barcelona, to which it had laid siege. Philip IV. wished to march in person against the rebels; but the count-duke feared the freedom of the camp, and dissuaded the king from his purpose. He caused a third army, chiefly composed of Portuguese nobles and their vassals, to march against Catalonia. Portugal had, since the reign of Philip II., been subjected to the Spanish monarchy, but Vasconcellos, the son-in-law of Olivarez, having exasperated the people of Lisbon by his insolence and exactions, Dom John, duke of Bragança, mounted the throne of Portugal, an event which will be described in the subsequent pages. The manner in which Olivarez announced the loss of a kingdom to his master, is perhaps unexampled in history:-" Sire," said he, "I bring you good news. The duke of Bragança has lost his senses; he has allowed himself to be proclaimed king of Portugal, and the confiscation (forfeiture to the state) of his property will bring into your treasury at least twelve millions." The death of his rival Richelieu, which happened in 1642, was a consolation he was not fated long to enjoy. So many accumulated disasters excited loud cries of indignation against their author; the nobles and the people combined in working his downfall. But the hatred of an entire nation was as yet insufficient to overturn his power. He himself filled up the measure of his iniquities by marrying, in 1642, the daughter of one of the highest noblemen of Castile, to his illegitimate son, whom he had recalled from India in order to introduce at court. No greater insult could be offered to a haughty nobility. It was then that the count de Grana, the emperor's ambassador, seconded the public indignation by the entreaties and remonstrances of his master. At length on the 15th January, 1643, Philip IV. resolved to banish his favourite to his estate at Luèches. But this indolent prince knew not how to wield his sceptre, and it is probable, that notwithstanding all the representations of the nobles, he would have again succumbed (fallen beneath) to the favourite's yoke, had not the pride of Olivarez happily come to the assistance of so much weakness. He published, under the title of Antidoto contra las Calumnias (An Antidote against Calumnies), a