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Champeaux contended that it stood for something real, and Abelard contended that it was used in a merely nominal sense. This question of nominalism and realism, unimportant as it may now seem, was then the dominant question in dialectics, and, as it were, the touchstone of masters and schools.* Abelard, as might have been expected, came off conqueror. His opponent was driven to the wall, and acknowledged himself conquered by striking out from his formula a word of the greatest importance to his system. Such a retraction was a deathblow to William's reputation as a teacher of philosophy. His pupils deserted him, and his spirit forsook him. Abelard was the victor; he destroyed the reputation of his antagonist, deprived the proud master of his pupils, and triumphed over an enemy.

It may be remarked, in passing, that nominalism and realism are now regarded as both true and both false. Some general words stand for things, others are mere names. Abelard was right in combating the exclu sive realism of William of Champeaux, and he was also right in combating the exclusive nominalism of Roscelin, the canon of Compiegne. In proposing conceptualism as a substitute for both, he took a step in advance, and showed the fertility of his genius.†

The archdeacon, in leaving the metropolitan

* Ouvr. ined. d'Abelard, De Gener. et Spec., p. 513.
See M. Cousin's Fragments de Philosophie Scholastique.

The new master, for

school, appointed a successor. some cause which is not clearly ascertained, gave his chair to Abelard, and took his place among the pupils. According to the rules of the establishment, no one could teach without being authorized by a recognized master. Abelard was therefore only a delegate of the new chief. The only mode of removing him was through the master of the school. Consequently William attacked his own successor, accusing him of many things, without avowing the real cause of hostility, which, without doubt, was his deference to Abelard. The new teacher was removed, and a tool of the defeated and embittered foe of Abelard was put in his place.

The decisive battle has been fought, the real victory has been won, but the new hero cannot yet take peaceful possession of the conquered territory. There is a hostile master in the great school of Paris, who is protected by the laws pertaining to instruction, and in addition to this, it is regarded as an act of rashness and almost as an offence, to teach in the city, save in the authorized manner. William of Champeaux has been unhorsed, but many things are yet to be done ere Abelard can reach the object of his ambition. He has experience, skill, learning, energy, eloquence, boldness, youth, perseverance, and unconquerable determination, and we may predict for him the most brilliant success.

XII.

SIEGE OF PARIS.

Si quæritis hujus

Fortunam pugnæ, non sum superatus ab illo.

"If you ask me what was the fortune of the combat, I was not vanquished by him."

Ovid, Metam. 1. xiii.

ABELARD found it necessary to return to Melun, and there to commence his lectures again.

William of Champeaux was not benefited in the least by the temporary flight of his enemy. He lacked energy of character, and skill to repel an attack. Above all, he was conscious of weakness and defeat. The disinterestedness of his piety in seeking a retreat being called in question, he was forced to retire some distance from the city into the country; the congregation which he had formed, and a few remaining disciples followed him.*

Abelard left Melun. He put his army of disciples on the march for Paris. The city was closed against him, that is, the cathedral school, to the mastership of which he was entitled by his genius and learning, was in the hands of another. He encamped outside

* Brucker, Hist. Crit. Phil. t. iii. p. 733.

of the wall, on the heights of Saint Genevieve. It is said that he even occupied the cloister of the church dedicated to the patron saint of the besieged city. Every thing is lawful in war. Paris should have

opened her great school to a philosopher, if she did not wish to have one of her sacred suburban temples defiled by the teaching of dialectics.

It was

Saint Genevieve has since become the Sinai, as a Frenchman says, of university instruction. then regarded as an asylum for those who were imbued with the spirit of independence. From time to time, private schools were established there, for such as could not find admission to the crowded schools of the city, and for such as were not satisfied with the regular instruction. These schools were tolerated, rather than authorized, by the chancellor of the Church of Paris.

Among all of these teachers, Abelard was the recognized superior. Even his enemies spoke of his "sublime eloquence," of his "science that bore every test." His originality and boldness seduced the crowd, and confounded his rivals. A head and shoulders above the rest, clad in an impenetrable logical coat of mail, he provoked those around him to combat, by his novel and daring assertions, and then put them to flight by the first stroke of his terrible dialectic lance. He was swift as Achilles, strong as Ajax; woe to the unlucky man who entered the lists against him,

While besieging Paris, Abelard became in reality, if not in name, the master of the schools. The successor of William was no better than a phantom, terrifying a few timid souls into submission by the ghostly voice of authority.

William heard, from his retreat in the country, of the danger of his successor, and marched to his aid.* He collected around him his old partisans, vainly hoping to raise the siege. This movement was unfortunate, for the few remaining pupils of the cathedral school returned to William of Champeaux at Saint Victor. The master abandoned his chair. Philosophic famine had wasted the besieged. The two old combatants were again pitted against each other. Skirmishes took place daily between detachments from the two hostile armies of disciples. The pupils of William, who had once been beaten in single combat, lacked confidence in their master, and were generally repulsed.

In Abelard the cause of the future triumphed over the cause of the past in William. The old master fought to the last, and yielded like a hero, in obedience to a stern necessity. "If you ask me," said Abelard, quoting Ovid, "what was the fortune of the combat, I shall respond to you like Ajax-He did not conquer me.Ӡ

* Vie d'Abelard, p. 27.

The first letter, p. 14.

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