head-dress of modern Persian monarchs is a plain black cap, which probably bears a similar relation to this crown, as the plain cap on the Persepolitan sculptures bore to the ancient state crown of their mighty predecessors. In concluding this article, it may be mentioned, that the birthdays of the kings of Persia were kept sacred, and celebrated with public sports, in the utmost pomp and magnificence. Their deaths were bewailed by the closing of the tribunals of justice for five days, and by extinguishing the fire which was worshipped in families as a household god; on which occasion alone they submitted to such a calamity. They were deposited in rocky vaults, as in the tombs at Naksh-i-Rustam, and Nakh-i-Rejeb, a privilege, as will be seen in a future page, particularly their own.* * THE SEVEN STATE COUNSELLORS. Absolute as was the regal authority among the Persians, yet it was, to a certain degree, kept within due bounds by the establishment of a council, which consisted of seven of the chief men of the nation, distinguished no less by their wisdom and abilities, than by their illustrious birth. This establishment had its origin in the conspiracy of the seven Persian noblemen, who entered into an association against Smerdis, the magician, and slew him. These noblemen stipulated with Darius Hystaspes, whom they placed on the throne, for the most distinguished honours and extraordinary privileges. These counsellors possessed great power. This may be seen by the letter written by Artaxerxes to Ezra, wherein he constantly associates himself with these seven counsellors: "Artaxerxes, king of kings, unto Ezra the priest, a scribe of the law of the God of heaven, perfect peace, and at such a time. I make a decree, that all they of the people of Israel, and of his priests and Levites, in my realm, which are minded of their own freewill to go up to Jerusalem, go with thee. Forasmuch as thou art sent of the king, and of his seven counsellors, to enquire concerning Judah and Jerusalem, according to the law of thy God which is in thine hand; and to carry the silver and gold, which the king and his counsel *For further remarks on the kingly power of Persia, the reader is referred to the corresponding section of the History of the Assyrians; for the Persian monarchs were the prototypes of the Assyrian monarchs; so were the Parthian those of the Persians. lors have freely offered unto the God of Israel, whose habitation is in Jerusalem, and all the silver and gold that thou canst find in all the province of Babylon, with the freewill offering of the people, and of the priests, offering willingly for the house of their God which is in Jerusalem; that thou mayest buy speedily with this money bullocks, rams, lambs, with their meat offerings, and their drink offerings, and offer them upon the altar of the house of your God which is in Jerusalem," etc. Ezra vii. 12—26. These counsellors were well versed in the laws, ancient customs, and manners of the state. They always attended the king, who never transacted anything, or determined any affair of importance, without their advice. This may be gathered from a transaction recorded in the first chapter of the book of Esther. The writer of that book, after having stated the refractory conduct of queen Vashti, represents Ahasuerus as seeking the advice of these seven counsellors. "Then the king said to the wise men, which knew the times, (for so was the king's manner toward all that knew law and judgment: and the next unto him was Carshena, Shethar, Admatha, Tarshish, Meres, Marsena, and Memucan, the seven princes of Persia and Media, which saw the king's face, and which sat the first in the kingdom;) What shall we do unto the queen Vashti according to law, because she hath not performed the commandment of the king Ahasuerus by the chamberlains? And Memucan answered before the king and the princes, Vashti the queen hath not done wrong to the king only, but also to all the princes, and to all the people that are in all the provinces of the king Ahasuerus. For this deed of the queen shall come abroad unto all women, so that they shall despise their husbands in their eyes, when it shall be reported, The king Ahasuerus commanded Vashti the queen to be brought in before him, but she came not. Likewise shall the ladies of Persia and Media say this day unto all the king's princes, which have heard of the deed of the queen. Thus shall there arise too much contempt and wrath. If it please the king, let there go a royal commandment from him, and let it be written among the laws of the Persians and the Medes, that it be not altered, That Vashti come no more before king Ahasuerus, and let the king give her royal estate unto another that is better than she. And when the king's decree which he shall make shall be published throughout all his empire, (for it is great,) all the wives shall give to their husbands honour, both to great and small." Ahasuerus was pleased with this counsel, and adopted it. See Esther i. 9-22. Among the sculptures at Nash-i-Rustam, there is one which exhibits a king in apparent conference with seven men, one queenly looking lady also being present, which aptly illustrates the foregoing extract. It belongs, however, to a later period than the era of Ahasuerus. This council did not interfere with the king's prerogative of ruling and commanding: it was confined entirely to that of reason, which consisted in communicating and imparting their knowledge and experience to the king. To them the king transferred several weighty cases, which otherwise might have been a burden to him, and by them he executed whatever measures had been adopted in the council. It was, in fact, by means of this standing council, that the maxims of the state were preserved, the knowledge of its interests perpetuated, affairs harmoniously conducted, and innovations, errors, and oversights prevented. This leads us to notice THE ADMINISTRATIVE POWER. The throne The terms king and judge are synonymous. is a tribunal, and the sovereign power the highest authority for the administration of justice. The duties of a king are well defined in the queen of Sheba's address to king Solomon. "Blessed," said she," be the Lord thy God, which delighted in thee, to set thee on the throne of Israel: because the Lord loved Israel for ever, therefore made he thee king, to do judgment and justice," 1 Kings x. 9. The Almighty hath made every thing subject to princes, to put them into a condition of fearing none but him. "For rulers," saith the apostle, "are not a terror to good works, but to the evil. Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power? do that which is good, and thou shalt have praise of the same: for he is the minister of God to thee for good. But if thou do that which is evil, be afraid; for he beareth not the sword in vain: for he is the minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil," Rom. xiii. 3, 4. What is that justice which God hath entrusted to the hands of monarchs? and wherefore hath he made them his delegates? The poet says, "Order is Heaven's first law, and this confessed, To this end kings reign, that order may be preserved in a state. And this order consists in observing a general equity, and taking care that brute force does not usurp the place of law that the property of one man should not be exposed to the violence of another, that the union of society be not broken, that artifice and fraud do not prevail over innocence and simplicity, that society should rest in peace under the protection of the laws, and that the weakest and poorest should find a sanctuary in the public authority. Josephus says that the kings of Persia used to administer justice in their own persons. For this reason, they never ascended the throne till they had been instructed by the magi, in the principles of justice and equity. These are the great and essential duties of the regal dignity, and though the kings of Persia were transcendently vicious in other respects, yet were they very scrupulous, and very tender in the discharge of these duties. After hearing the merits of the cause, they took several days to consider and advise with the magi, before they gave sentence. When they sat on life and death, they not only considered the crime of which the delinquent was impeached, but all the actions, whether good or bad, of his whole life; and they condemned or acquitted him, according as his crimes or deserts prevailed. Though the kings of Persia may in many instances have administered justice in their own persons, it cannot be supposed that in so mighty an empire they could sit in judgment on every case. Besides the king, there were, indeed, several judges, all men of unblemished characters, and skilful in the laws of the kingdom. These were called "royal judges," and they administered justice at stated times, in different provinces. Some of these judges attended the king wherever he sojourned. The king often advised with them; and in matters concerning himself, referred the whole to their judgment. They were nominated by the king, and, as the employment was for life, great care was taken to prefer only such as were famed for their integrity. Delinquency on the part of judges was punished with extreme severity. Herodotus says, that one of the royal judges having suffered himself to be corrupted by a bribe, was condemned by Cambyses to be put to death without mercy, and to have his skin placed upon the seat of justice. He adds what is most revolting, that the son succeeded his father in his seat. According to Xenophon, the ordinary judges of Persia were taken out of the class of old men, into which none were admitted till the age of fifty years. A man, therefore, could not exercise the office of judge before that age; the Persians being of opinion that a fully matured mind was required in an employment, which decided upon the fortunes, reputations, and lives of the community. Amongst the Persians, it was not lawful either for a private person to put his slave to death, or for the prince to inflict capital punishment upon any of his subjects for the first offence; the crime being considered rather the effect of human weakness and frailty, than of a confirmed malignity of mind. They thought it reasonable to put the good as well as the evil into the scales of justice: and they deemed it unjust that the good actions of a man should be obliterated by a single crime. It was upon this principle that Darius revoked the sentence he had passed upon one of his judges for some prevarication in his office, at the very moment he was going to be executed acknowledging that he had pronounced it with more precipitation than wisdom. One essential rule which the Persians observed in their judgments, was, in the first place, never to condemn any person without confronting him with his accuser, and without giving him time and the means necessary for his defence; and, in the second place, if the person accused was found innocent, to inflict the same punishment upon the accuser, as the accused would have suffered, had he been found guilty. Diodorus relates an incident that will illustrate this. One of the favourites of Artaxerxes, ambitious of possessing a place possessed by a superior officer, endeavoured to make the king suspect the fidelity of that officer. To this end, he sent informations to court full of calumnies against him, persuading himself that the king would believe and act upon the report without examination of the matter. The officer was imprisoned, but he desired of the king before he was condemned, that his cause might be heard, and his accusers ordered to produce their evidence against him. The king complied with the request, and as there was no evidence but the letters which his enemy had written against him, he was acquitted. The king's indignation then fell upon the accuser, and the innocent thereby was shielded from the artifice and cruelty of calumny and violence. Another memorable example of firmness and the love of justice in the monarchs of Persia, is recorded in the book of Esther. When the eyes of Ahasuerus were opened to the dark designs of the wicked Haman, who had obtained from |