The French lines are for the most part leased to six great companies for a period of ninety-nine years. A portion of the profits is reserved for the redemption of the capital, after which the railroads become, as in the case of those of Germany and Belgium, the absolute property of the State. Nearly all the French lines pay large dividends to their proprietors.

revenue. Thus in Baden the State railways with the ports of the Channel and the yield a profit upon the capital expended on Atlantic. them of not less than 15 per cent. Although the Germanic States were united by community of manners, race, and language, yet at the time the railway system was inaugurated they were governed by different sovereigns and subject to different administrations, and in consequence there was a want of unity in their proceedings. Each government acted for itself, independently of the others. Nevertheless, partly from the physical character of the countries, and partly from the distribution of the population and seats of industry, and a consequent harmony of interests, these separate and independent measures have of themselves assumed a considerable uniformity of plan,' and the Germanic States are now overspread by one of the most magnificent systems of interior communication of which Europe can afford any example. It consists of 7600 miles of railway, which have absorbed £74,793,600, being very nearly at the rate of £10,000 per mile.

The financial condition of Austria rendered it impossible for its Government to raise money direct for the construction of railways. It had therefore to adopt the plan of granting concessions to private companies, whose proceedings, however, are under the control of the Administration, which guarantees a certain rate of interest. At the end of the lease, which in no case exceeds ninety years, the property in the railways and their appurtenances passes to the State. Meanwhile they yield an average profit of 7 per cent. on the working.

The Austrian Government, no doubt actuated by other motives than those of a desire to promote the wellbeing of the people, extended the benefits of railway communication to the territories which at that time it possessed in Italy, and constructed a line nearly 200 miles in length, traversing the Lombardo-Venetian territory, and connecting Venice with Milan. The advantages which this railroad has conferred upon the kingdom of Italy may serve to compensate to a certain extent the Italian people for their sufferings for upwards of forty years from Austrian domination.

The railway policy of France has been of a somewhat similar character. When public railways were first introduced in that country in 1836, the Government undertook to assist in their formation, by granting sums in aid and by constructing earthworks and bridges. But owing to the distractions to which the Government had been exposed, and the engrossing nature of the political questions which occupied the French Chambers at that time, it was not until 1842 that the Government formally resolved that a system of railways should be planned and executed. which should connect the capital with those points of the frontier, by land and sea, that should best serve the purposes of foreign commerce, at the same time opposition to the British system, and have taking into account the requirements of the interior in the course which these lines should follow. The plan then formed has been fully carried out by the construction of six great lines, issuing from the capital and connecting it with the Belgian frontier, Germany, and Spain, and

Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, and Portugal, have all established railways in their respective territories on what may be called the Continental in

all reaped important advantages from their mode of construction, combining as it does the advantages arising from private enterprise with sufficient security for the public against the abuse of the powers intrusted to the railway companies. But it is in the United States of America that the railway

system has been carried out to the greatest | road side, subject to no other cost save that extent. As soon as the result of the of hewing it. The station houses, booking operations in Britain became known, the offices, and other buildings are likewise enterprising spirit of the Americans was slightly and cheaply constructed of timber. directed to the establishment of a system A further and much larger saving is effected, of steam communication by land throughout as compared with European lines, by the their vast territories. The progress was so method of construction. As they are formed rapid that in 1846 the New England states to supply a very limited amount of traffic were in every direction intersected by rail- in proportion to their length, the American ways; nearly 1000 miles of railroad had railways are generally single lines. The becn constructed in the State of Pennsyl- structure of the roads themselves has been vania, and an equal length in the State of carried on upon a most economical scale, the New York. Altogether 4500 miles of rail- average cost of the passenger lines being way were in operation at that early period only about £9000 per mile, and the working in the United States. Every year witnesses of the lines is conducted in a similar inthe construction of new lines on a large expensive manner. It is evident, however, scale; and from the main lines which that the American lines have to a large traverse the country in every direction, at extent been formed in an imperfect and every point diverge innumerable ramifica- temporary manner, requiring constant retions either by branch railways, or by construction and repair; for in 1881 more tributary navigable rivers, or by common than £20,000,000 sterling was expended roads; and now the native forests, where on the permanent way of existing railroads until within a few years human foot never in the States, exclusive of the ordinary trod-the vast prairies and solitudes, the charges for maintenance. silence of which was never disturbed even by the red man-are traversed by these iron roads.

The extension of railways in America has been greatly facilitated by the cheapness of their construction. Not only is the ground obtained without payment, but in a good many instances the State Legislatures have given large grants of land bordering the railways, as a contribution towards the cost of these undertakings, to induce companies to form lines through their territories. With a few exceptions the tracts of country over which these railways pass form nearly a dead level; there is therefore but little earthwork to construct. Low embankments and shallow cuttings, and these only occasionally, are all the difficulties the engineer has to surmount. Of works of art, such as viaducts and tunnels, there are almost none. Where the lines have to be conducted over streams or rivers, bridges are built in a rude but substantial and secure manner, of timber which is supplied from the forests at the

A report issued by Mr. West, the British Minister at Washington, shows that at the close of the year 1881 there were 104,813 miles of railways open for traffic in the United States, of which 9358 miles were opened in the course of that year. Since 1870 there has been added 51,899 miles of line to the previously existing roads, so that during twelve years the extent has been nearly doubled. But the British system is far larger in proportion to the area to be served: for while in the United Kingdom there is a mile of railway for every 63 square miles of country, the States have only one square mile of line for every 29 miles of area. The estimated cost of the additions made to the American railways last year was £48,739,000, or £5208 per mile. The total capital and funded debt of the American lines at the end of last year was £1,043,831,000, or £10,913 per mile, while that of the British railways was £745,528,162, or £41,019 per mile. The gross receipts of the British lines in 1881 were £66,557,442, or rather less than 9

per cent. on the stock and loan capital, | amount of merchandise carried during 1881 while those of the American railways amounted to £151,109,399, or nearly 14 per cent. on their capital and funded debt. In other words, they have earned in the gross twice as much as ours, but then their mileage is nearly six times as great. We have 1939 persons for every mile of railway open, while the Americans have only 507 inhabitants for every mile. In Britain the railways earned in 1881 £3662 per mile; in the United States the earning only amounted to £1599 per mile on the railways worked during the year. The working expenditure of the British lines was £34,602,616, or 52 per cent. of the gross earnings; with the Americans it was £93,659,598, or 62 per cent. of the gross earnings. There do not appear to be any returns of the amount of passenger traffic on the American lines; but the estimated

was 350,000,000 tons, which is equal to 3811 tons per mile of line actually worked, while the goods carried on the British railways amounted to 244,989,958 tons, or 13,479 tons per mile of line open. The net receipts devoted to the payment of interest on the funded debt of the American railroads was £26,851,459, and £19,446,708 was available for the payment of dividends. The total net receipts were equal to 443 on the capital and funded debt. The net earnings of the British railways were £31,954,826, equal to 4·29 per cent. on the stock and loan capital. But the rate of interest which the American companies have to pay on loans is much higher than that which most of the British railway companies have to pay, so that the profits of the American shareholders must be proportionately smaller.

The New Ministry-Their difficulties-Condition of Ireland-The Potato Failure-Starvation and Mortality among the Peasantry-Measures of Relief adopted by the Government-The Public Works Bill and its injurious effectsFailure of the Measure-A change of System tried-Its results-Amount of Relief granted by ParliamentExtensive voluntary contributions at home and abroad-Activity and zeal displayed by the public officers- Enormous diminution of the population of Ireland by emigration and death-Money lent by the Treasury for Public Works, the improvement of Estates, and Irish Railways-Condition of many of the Irish Landlords-The Encumbered Estates Act-Its effect-Potato blight in the Western Highlands and Islands of Scotland-State and habits of the Peasantry -Report of Sir John M'Neill-The Crofters and Cottars-Position and liberal measures adopted by the Landlords— The Destitution Fund-Its influence on the habits of the people-Need of Emigration-Commercial distress in England and Scotland at this time-Measures taken by the Government to restore public confidence-Last speech of O'Connell in the House of Commons-His death at Genoa.

On the resignation of Sir Robert Peel (June | retrench in periods of scarcity, and resort 29th, 1846), Lord John Russell was in- to cheaper kinds of food, such as barley, trusted by Her Majesty with the formation oats, rice, and potatoes; but as the Irish of a new Administration, which was now people were habitually and entirely fed effected without difficulty. Lord Russell upon potatoes, they lived upon the extreme was, of course, first Lord of the Treasury; the verge of human subsistence; and when they Marquis of Lansdowne became Lord Presi- were deprived of their accustomed food, dent; Lord Cottenham, Lord Chancellor; there was nothing cheaper to which they the Earl of Minto, Privy Seal; Sir Charles could resort. They had already reached Wood, Chancellor of the Exchequer; Lord the lowest point in the descending scale, Palmerston resumed his former office of and there was nothing beyond but starvaForeign Secretary; Earl Grey, who had in tion or beggary. A failure of the potato some way got over his objections to this crop had repeatedly occurred in Ireland, arrangement, was appointed Secretary for involving the population in great privation the Colonies; Sir John C. Hobhouse re- and suffering, and requiring liberal assistturned to the Board of Control; the Earl ance to save them from starvation. There of Clarendon became President of the never was a country,' said the Duke of Board of Trade; Lord Campbell, Chancellor Wellington in 1838, 'in which poverty of the Duchy of Lancaster; the Marquis existed to so great a degree as it exists in of Clanricarde, Post-master General; the Ireland. I held a high situation in that Earl of Auckland, first Lord of the Admi- country thirty years ago, and I must say ralty; the Earl of Bessborough, Lord Lieu- that from that time to this there has tenant of Ireland, with Mr. Labouchere as scarcely been a single year in which the Chief Secretary. Government has not, at certain periods of it, entertained the most serious apprehension of actual famine. I am firmly convinced that, from the year 1806 down to the present time, a year has not passed in which the Government has not been called on to give assistance to relieve the poverty and distress which prevailed in Ireland.'

The new Ministry entered upon the duties of their office in very critical circumstances, and they were at once called on to grapple with the famine that was commencing its ravages in Ireland. The Irish people had for generations been always on the brink of famine. The Irish peasantry were usually dependent on the potato, which furnished them with the bare means of subsistence. A population whose ordinary food is bread and butcher meat can

The potato disease which now occurred was incomparably more severe and extensive than any of the previous failures. It began in the autumn of 1845, and though

the early crop of potatoes, which is gene- | contains 161. The deaths in the infirmary rally about one-sixth of the whole, escaped, were eighty-seven; in December they the late, or what is commonly called 'the amounted to 135. The mortality is very people's crop,' was very seriously affected. great among the poor, and the aspect of the But the attack was partial, and although burying-grounds is assuming a new form. the destruction of human food was, on the In many cases the dead are buried without whole, very great, a considerable portion coffins, and instances are known where they of the produce was saved. But in 1846 the are not even brought to a burial-ground, but blight on the potatoes took place earlier, are interred in the fields.' On the 17th of and was of a much more sweeping and February it was reported, 'Day by day the destructive character. On the 27th of July, accounts that reach us are becoming more wrote Father Mathew, 'I passed from Cork horrifying. There is scarcely a county in to Dublin, and this doomed plant bloomed Ireland-unless Kildare may be an excepin all the luxuriance of an abundant har- tion-in which the people are not dying of vest. Returning on the 3rd of August starvation. Within one week there have I beheld with sorrow one wild waste of been no less than ninety-five deaths in the putrefying vegetation. In many places the Union Workhouse of Lurgan, being nearly wretched people were seated on the fences an eighth part of the entire inmates. In of their decaying gardens, wringing their Fermanagh destitution is rapidly extendhands and wailing bitterly the destruction ing, and, we are sorry to add, crime has that had left them foodless.' In less than greatly increased. In Sligo, so rapid has a week from the time when the first symp- been the mortality, that the coroners are toms of the disease appeared, the face of totally unable to perform their duties; in one the whole country was changed, the fields place there were forty dead bodies waiting assumed a blackened appearance, as if they inquests.' So far as could be ascertained the had been burned up, and the growth of the workhouse mortality in Ireland for the first potatoes was arrested when they were not week of January was 1405 out of 108,500 larger than a marble or a pigeon's egg. receiving relief, and in the second week 'Distress and fear,' said Captain Morris, 1493 out of 110,561. 'were pictured in every countenance, and there was a general rush to dig and sell or consume the crop by feeding pigs and cattle, fearing that in a short time they would prove unfit for any use.' The most skilful men of science were completely baffled in their efforts to discern the origin of the disease, and they found themselves equally unable to devise a remedy for its ravages. The anticipated result speedily took place. On the 5th of December the news from Skibbereen was 'Hunger, nakedness, sickness, and mortality, almost equal to the ravages of an epidemic disease, are the prevailing feature of the dwellings of the poor. Fever afflicts hundreds of them, and dysentery, produced by cold and want of nutritious food, is equally common. The workhouse contains 900 paupers; the fever hospital, built to accommodate forty patients,

From Mayo it was reported that the gaunt and long-dreaded scourge of famine had at length broken out. At Clonmell the mob broke into every baker's shop in the place, and took out all the food they could lay their hands on. At Carrick-on-Suir the populace rose and broke into all the meal and provision stores, and afterwards into the shops generally. A boat proceeding from Limerick to Clare was attacked by a body of starving peasants, and plundered of her cargo of corn and Indian flour. Similar famine riots broke out in the various towns in the south and west of the country.

It was evident that the immediate interposition of the Government and the Legislature was required to save the peasantry from starvation; but it was very difficult to devise a remedy that would