been in progress up to our own time, when it has gained the position we have already claimed for it.

The government and instruction of the University are chiefly regulated by academical statutes, the enactment of which is vested in the king. The existing statutes, which followed upon those of 1852, were issued January 10, 1876. The governing body consists of a chancellor, pro-chancellor, rector, consistorium majus, consistorium minus, and treasury board. The chancellor is elected by the larger consistory, on approval of the king, and is charged with the general concern of the academic erudition, discipline, and finances. The Archbishop of Sweden is ex officio pro-chancellor. The larger consistory is composed of all the ordinary professors, and the smaller one of the pro-rector and five fellows, one from each of the three first faculties, and one from each section of the faculty of arts, all five elected every third year by consistorium majus from amongst the ordinary professors. Of both consistories the academical librarian and treasurer are additional members; the rector presides over both, and the pro-chancellor is in all cases entitled to a seat. The rector is appointed for two years by consistorium majus out of the professors of two years' standing. As actual head of the university, he exercises control over all academical matters and persons, especially the disciplinary superintendence of the students. Matters relating to the financial state of the university are committed to the treasury board, composed of the treasurer and three ordinary teachers, elected once in three years by the larger consistory. Special university departments are carried on by bodies of their own— such as the chancery or secretariate, the university library, &c.

There are four Faculties-Divinity, Law, Medicine, and Arts. Each Faculty consists of its own professors, under the presidency of a dean, which office is held yearly by the members in rotation. The staff of teachers includes

professors, ordinary and extraordinary, adjuncts and docents, with trainingmasters in music, drawing, gymnastics, and horsemanship. Professors are nominated by the king, and adjuncts and training masters by the chancellor, while docents are appointed by the chancellor. In these appointments the sole principle prevailing is that of scientific proficiency.

Candidates for a professorship must submit a dissertation and two lectures, all bearing on subjects per taining to the vacant chair. The dissertation may be either in Latin, Swedish, French, German, English, or Italian; but the lectures must be delivered in the mother tongue, one of them on a subject chosen by the candidate, the other on one selected from amongst several presented by the faculty or section. Judgments on the candidates having been given by both consistories, the pro-chancellor and the chancellor, all the documents concerned are remitted to the king. The nomination of adjuncts is subject to the same requirements as that of professors, though resting ultimately with the chancellor.

With each chair, one or more docentships are connected. These appointments depend on the chancellor. As a matter of fact, the granting of venia docendi often follows a doctor's degree. Where the two do not coincide, the doctor qualifies himself by other treatises or publications, and pursues special studies for one or two years subsequent to taking his degree. In no stage are tutorial-as understood at English or American universities— or disciplinary powers in the candidates taken into consideration, nor do` any general principles affect the final result.

On the whole, therefore, academical appointments at Upsala remind us closely of those at German universities, one difference being that the “disputations" at the latter are, more or less, a mere ceremony, whereas with us they are of the highest consequence, because the issue depends as much on

the defence as on the gist of the dissertation. Again, competition in German universities will, no doubt, on the score of their great number, be keener than at Upsala, which, although it to some extent furnishes Lund with professors, supplies its own educational staff from among former graduates. The emulation from without comes rather from the secondary schools, since they are largely officered by younger university teachers, who sometimes compete for professorial dignities. For this reason, and by virtue of its numerous pupils, Upsala will scarcely lack meet instructorial

resources.

With but few exceptions all chairs are state; those created by private munificence are filled in accordance with the particular provision of the founder. As to docents, the chancellor is empowered to withdraw venia docendi on the requisition of a faculty or section and consistorium majus, whereas professors and adjuncts hold office during good behaviour. Training masters receive their position from the chancellor, on recommendation of the larger consistory.

The main subjects of university instruction are:-In Divinity—theological cyclopædia, exegetical, systematical, historical, and practical theology. In Law-judicial cyclopædia, Roman law, international and constitutional law, political economy, history of law, and the system of Swedish law in all its branches. In Medicine anatomy, physiology, medical chemistry and pharmacology, pathology and pathological anatomy, practice of medicine, surgery, and ophthalmics, obstetrics and gynecology, medical jurisprudence, and state medicine, and the - history of medicine. In the humanistic section of the Faculty of Artstheoretical and practical philosophy, history, and statistics (Staatswissenschaft), classical oriental and modern. European philology and aesthetics. And in the Mathematical-natural scientific section of the faculty-mathematics, astronomy, physics, mechanics,

chemistry, mineralogy, geology, botany, and zoology.

Prior to the opening of each term all the instructors of the same faculty or section meet for the purpose of drawing up a general programme, to be submitted to the consistorium minus and published as a special university catalogue.

The academical year is divided into two terms- -an autumn term, from September 1st to December 15th, and a spring term, from January 15th to June 1st. The first and last fortnights of each term are devoted to examinations and other academical occupations, to the exclusion of public lectures. One week at Easter and another at Whitsuntide are also exempted from public deliveries. The vacations may be utilised by the students for academic study; and, as a matter of fact, persons desirous of accelerating their university course stay throughout the whole year, some with a view of getting special assistance from the younger teachers. All official teaching is communicated in the form of lectures, delivered in the rooms or halls of the university. The discourses of professors are given on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, and those of adjuncts on Wednesdays and Saturdays; the docents read at their own discretion. The delivery occupies an hour, deducting "the academic quarter," as a necessary interval for assembling. All official lectures are gratuitous. No fees whatever are paid for public university tuition, and a student can in this respect pass his whole curriculum for nothing. But no legal obligation is imposed upon him to attend, and he accordingly does so at his own choice and convenience. He has, of course, to give his name to the "reader," but the attendances are not recorded as in England, nor verified in any "Anmeldungsbuch" of his own as in Germany. Neither do they convey any particular benefit as regards tests to be passed, because the examiners take no notice of attend

ance, but merely of proficiency in the candidates. The lecturer therefore reads merely to students who are anxious to hear him, and who attend with a view to learn and improve themselves. The lectures are open to female and male scholars alike, and even to non-academic citizens. As a matter of fact outsiders, often ladies, are also present, when the matter explained is of a kind to interest them. Whenever the theme itself involves it, the instruction exhibits an elementary character, as in starting Arabic, Sanscrit, astronomy, geology, and other topics not taught in the "intermediate" schools. But the number of subjects falling within the scope of those schools is pretty extensive, and the standard reached in them before matriculation such that the student is prepared to enter directly upon his academic career. In Sweden primary education is compulsory on all. On the primary schools follow the "higher elementary" or secondary ones, which I would gladly describe at length if my space permitted. Those, however, who wish for such information will find it in a paper on "Education in Sweden," in the International Review, of New York.

To return to the university, the lecturer "reads" either from manuscript or extempore, and the lecture is supplemented by scientific exercises, in which ordinary teachers are bound to give their assistance gratuitously. Furthermore, all instructors are legally obliged to aid the students by private teaching, to be paid for on the part of the receiver, and carried on in the form either of lessons or lectures. The payment amounts to two or three Swedish crowns (18 crowns= = 17.) an hour, for each party to a private lecture course

"" or collegium," com

monly occupying as much time as the public one of a professor-say 20 crowns per term. The attendance at a lecture, private or public, will vary from half a dozen to hundreds. Neither for instruction nor examinations are text-books prescribed, but

the student uses whatever works he pleases, and prepares himself for whatever part of his subject, and to whatever degree of proficiency he judges most convenient. Informing the examiner that he has devoted closer attention to some subject, or portion of a subject, with a view of receiving a higher mark, the demand on the part of the teacher will be raised accordingly. However, in practice the student usually consults the teacher as to the choice of books.

With few exceptions the students conclude their academic pursuits by an examination, the time of passing which depends upon themselves, since no judicial or customary prescriptions for that end are in force. The average age of the examined is scarcely to be ascertained, for while a doctorate or even a docentship may be obtained at twenty-three, there may be undergraduates who are mature and even aged men. In fact, the university does not prevent any one remaining a student at Upsala the whole of his life, if he prefers it.

Turning to examinations and degrees, there are at the disposal of the faculties of Arts, Medicine and Law, the grades of candidate, licentiate, and doctor, and in Divinity those of candidate and licentiate. The degree of doctor in divinity, though it can be obtained by dint of academic studies, is, as a rule, granted by the king. Female students are admitted to all

examinations except divinity and law. To obtain a doctorate in philosophy, the candidate has to translate from Swedish into Latin, as a conditio sine quâ non, and to undergo the "candidate-examination" in theoretical philosophy, history, Latin, and Scandinavian or Northern languages. In connection with either mathematics or some one subject of natural science, and in addition to the obligatory subjects, a candidate may take up extra subjects within the entire province of the faculty. The examination is partly in writing and partly oral, and the candidate must satisfy the examiners

in each one of the obligatory subjects, and obtain not less than eight merit units in all.

The examination for licentiate in Philosophy includes a good many subjects, arranged under seven "schools," of which the candidate may select but one, or even some portion only of one. Whatever division he chooses, he must satisfy the examiners in two subjects as necessary, and an additional one as optional. As to the mode of testing the candidate, the only difference between this and that just spoken of is that he has to compose a scientific treatise on some subject approved by the professor. The examinee fails unless he receives " approbation" for the dissertation, as well as for all the subjects of the oral examination, with at least five merit units in the latter.

Students have to undergo a preliminary examination before starting on the professional university curriculum. A medical student becomes a candidate in Medicine by proficiency in anatomy, physiology, medical chemistry, pharmacology, general pathology, and the history of medicine; and so on for the licentiate. Before admission to such examination, the student must produce certificates of his having passed the prescribed exercises in the laboratory and clinics, or attended to practical medicine, either with special charge of patients in a hospital, or privately, or is able to superintend an apothecary's shop. In the faculties of law and divinity the degrees of candidate and licentiate are given on duly passed examinations; that for a candidate covering all the subjects which belong to the respective faculty, and that for a licentiate evincing a thorough acquaintance with them, as well as a certain range of practical experience in both. may be added, that the doctor's degree, in all faculties, excepting that of Divinity, is bestowed on a dissertation as the ultimate requirement. The dissertation is to be composed, printed, and defended publicly by the author,

It

and the judgment of the faculty or section on it bears upon the defence as well as the contents. For the disputation, the faculty appoints an "opponent," whilst two others are selected by the "respondent" himself; but any one present may take part in the debate. Of the antagonists, the "third opponent" comes off not so badly, if he be clever in joking upon the publication, and thus amuse the audience; but the other two, in particular the "faculty opponent," have to assail in earnest, and thus not only afford the author the best opportunity of showing his ability, but also procure reputation for themselves. The disputation is therefore of great moment. It is at

tended by the dean or professors, who have to pass sentence; and the former may cause the contest to cease after four hours. Degrees in Law and Medicine are commonly conferred in an informal manner at the close of spring term, whereas those in Arts take place every third year, accompanied by showy festivities. As far as the doctoral degree in Arts is concerned, this festival, to borrow from another essay of the writer's, may be said to commence on the day when the mothers, sisters, and sweethearts of the successful candidates meet for the sake of twining the ornamental wreath from the Linnæan laurel. The following night is signalised by serenades by the graduates and their friends, while the celebration proper on the following day is ushered in by the firing of cannon at the royal castle, and centres in the Parnassus, a large platform in the cathedral, capable of holding all those immediately interested. There the recent graduates, the jubilee doctors, and the graduates of fifty years' standing, are solemnly invested with the ring and laurel crown, amid firing of guns, pealing of bells, organ-music, and all the usual necessary features of such occasions. These are followed by a dinner in the greenhouse of the botanical garden, and concluded by a ball in the large hall of the "Carolina Rediviva."

In the means of acquiring literary and scientific knowledge the university is pretty rich, though in antiquities and objects of art it is still somewhat defective. In addition to a library of 180,000 volumes and 8,000 manuscripts, it possesses numerous scientific collections, laboratories, clinics, a botanical garden, an observatory, &c., all in charge of professors and staff; as well as gymnasium, orchestra, draw ing and reading rooms, and so forth. Apart from the university library, the "student corps" and each "nation has a library of its own. Academic jurisdiction extends to a circuit of six miles round Upsala, and concerns merely such acts as involve the relation of the students to the university, common, civil, and criminal suits falling under the cognisance of the ordi

nary law courts. The punishment inflicted may be either simply a reproof and warning, rustication, or expulsion and loss of "stipend," i.e. scholarship. Additional penalties may be inflicted when a student is found guilty of any crime by a common court. And on the other hand, the rector is entitled to assist students involved in criminal charges by procuring them professional counsel. Such interference is, however, very rare; and, owing to the peculiar constitution of the university, the students have the right, as well as the power, to maintain order amongst themselves.

The agencies by which this is done are the corporations or "nations" into which all of the students are divided. Having entered the university, the students, whether male or female, are under obligation to join one of the "nations" at their own option; but any "nation' may ex

clude those whom it deems unworthy of entrance, and the excluded have to submit to special surveillance ordered by the rector. Furthermore, no academical testimonial will be issued to any student, unless the opinion of his or her nation has been first ascertained. In this way the

nations, i.e. the students themselves, exercise a legal and moral restraint over their members, the more beneficial and effective as it springs from independent action and conscious responsibility.

Besides furthering diligence, morality, and good order, the object of these bodies is to afford the students means of mutual assistance, by libraries, disputations, lectures, testimonials, loans, recommendation to, or granting of, "stipends," musical and theatrical entertainments, and the like. Each nation has a house of its own, with reading-room and library, drawing-room, assembly-room, offices, &e. These corporations unquestionably exercise a most advantageous influence on the university life, the more so as the teachers also are members of them, the result of which is to encourage a more familiar and personal intercourse between them and their pupils. A "Nation" is made up of honorary and non-honorary members, the latter consisting of resident undergraduates or graduates, the former chiefly elected from the teachers. Honorary members do not interfere in the affairs of the society, even when entitled so to do, and their principal duties consist in attending feasts to which it may invite them. The non-honorary or active members are divided into seniors, juniors, and recentiors. Recentiors slightly resembling the German "foxes," are freshmen who have served their apprenticeship, and after two or more terms, are promoted to the rank of juniors. Out of these the seniors are chosen in a certain proportion to the whole of the nation, so as to form the very élite of it in character, knowledge, industry, and experience. The management of the affairs of a nation is intrusted to various boards; but matters of im portance are transacted by the whole nation, presided over by its "curator." The boards and officers are elected by and out of the nation, commonly once a year, and the curator from amongst younger academical teachers.