tion. Recently the practice of preserving fresh undried figs in tins has been adopted, but the amount used in that form is as yet insignificant compared with the quantities preserved by drying. Of the dried and pressed fruit the import into Great Britain alone averages from six to seven thousand tons annually, the following being the official returns for the five years ended 1876:

The greater part (about four-fifths) of these imports comes from Asia Minor, the remainder being produced in various Mediterranean countries. (C. P. J.) FIGARO, a famous dramatic character first introduced on the stage by Beaumarchais in the Barbier de Séville, the Mariage de Figaro, and the Folle Journée. The name is said to be an old Spanish and Italian word for a wigmaker, connected with the verb cigarrar, to roll in paper. Many of the traits of the character are to be found in earlier comic types of the Roman and Italian stage, but as a whole the conception was marked by great originality; and Figaro soon seized the popular imagination, and became the recognized representative of daring, clever, and nonchalant roguery and intrigue. Almost immediately after its appearance, Mozart chose the Marriage of Figaro as the subject of an opera, and the Barber of Seville was treated first by Parsiello, and afterwards in 1816 by Rossini. In 1826 the name of the witty rogue was taken by a journal which continued till 1833 to be one of the principal Parisian periodicals, numbering among its contributors such men as Jules Janin, Paul Lacroix, Léon Gozlan, Alphonse Karr, Dr Veron, Jules Sandeau, and George Sind. Various abortive attempts were made to restore the Figaro during the next twenty years; and at length in 1854 the efforts of M. Villemessant were crowned with success. The new journal not only still exists, but has attained unusual popularity.

See Marc Monnier, Les Aieux de Figaro, 1868; H. de Villemessant, Mémoires d'un Journaliste, 1867.

FIGEAC, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot, is situated on the right bank of the Selle, 32 miles N.E. of Cahors. It is inclosed by an amphitheatre of wooded and vine-clad hills, but is illbuilt, and its streets are narrow and dirty. Many of the buildings are remarkable for their antique style. It was formerly surrounded by ramparts and ditches, but these were demolished in 1622, though remains of them still exist. Figeac has linen and cotton manufactures, dyeworks, and tanneries, and also a considerable trade in cattle and wine. Among the public edifices worthy of notice are the communal college, the hospital, the abbey church of St Sauveur, the church of Notre Dame du Puy, and the Château de la Baleine, now transformed into a law court, but still retaining its feudal exterior. At the south and west extremities of the town are two obelisks called Les aiguilles, octagonal in form, and upwards of 50 feet in height, which were used in former times as fire beacons to guide travellers by night. Champollion the archæologist was born at Figeac in 1790, and an obelisk has been erected to his memory near the river. The town owes its origin to a Benedictine abbey founded by Pepin the Short in 755. besieged by the Huguenots in 1568 without success, conquered by them in 1576, and remained one of their chief fortresses till 1622. The population in 1876

FIGUERAS, a frontier town of Spain, in the province of Gerona, and 20 miles W.N.W. of the town of that name. It is a straggling town, situated in a rich plain of olives

and rice. It possesses a beautiful parish church, two monasteries, and a hospital. The principal manufactures are leather and paper, and it has some trade with France. The citadel, an irregular pentagonal structure on the principles of Vauban, is considered one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. It was built by Ferdinand VI., and its situation renders it the key to the frontier. Its cost amounted to £285,000, and it contains accommodation for 16,000 men and 500 horses. The buildings inside the walls are all bomb-proof, and the natural adaptation of its situation has been so taken advantage of that trenches can scarcely be opened on any side, the ground being everywhere rocky. In 1794 it was surrendered to the French, but it was retaken in 1795. It was again captured by the French in 1808, and though they were forced to vacate it in 1811, they recaptured it on the 19th August of the same year. In 1813 they were again driven out, but it again capitulated to them in 1823. The population of Figueras is about 10,000.

FIJI ISLANDS. The Fiji, or more correctly Viti, archipelago (Fiji being the pronunciation in the eastern part of the group frequented by the Tongans) is one of the most important in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbours are the Samoan group 300 miles to the N.E., and the Tongan or Friendly rather nearer to the S.É. Lying between 177° E. and 178° W. long., and between 15° 40′ and 20° S. lat., it is beyond the limits of the perpetual S.E. trades, while not within the range of the N.W. monsoons. From April to November the winds are steady between S.E. and E.N.E., after which the weather becomes un

Map of Fiji Islands. certain and the winds often northerly. In February and March heavy gales are frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur, causing scarcity by destroying the crops. The rainfall is much greater on the windward than on the lee sides of the islands (108 inches at Levuka), but the mean temperature is much the same, viz., about 80° F. The greatest rise and fall of the tide is six feet. The islands cover an area of some 7400 square miles, or about that of Wales. Excluding the two large islands, they are classed by the natives in three groups, viz., the "Lau" or Windward Islands, mostly small, but many of them very fertile, of which Lakemba is the most important; "Loma-i-Viti," or Inner Fiji, i.e., the islands inclosed between the Lau and the two great islands Viti Levu (Great Viti) and Vanua Levu (Great Land); and the "Ra" or Leeward Islands, a chain of numerous small islands bounding the group to the westward.

Scenery. There is not much level country, except in the small coral islets, and certain rich tracts along the coasts of the two large islands, especially near the mouths of rivers. Elsewhere hill and valley, peak and precipice, assume the most romantic forms, clothed almost always

with a beautiful and luxuriant vegetation. The large islauds have a considerable extent of undulating country, dry and open on their lee sides; the peaks rise from 4000 to 5000 feet.

Climate and Diseases.-The climate, especially from November to April, is somewhat enervating to the Englishman, but not unhealthy. Fevers are hardly known. Dysentery, which is very common, and the most serious disease in the islands, is said to have been unknown before the advent of Europeans. Elephantiasis is common, but is curable by removal into higher and better air. It is sometimes produced by immoderate use of kava. Influenza is at times prevalent and very fatal. Rheumatism is common. The natives have a bad skin disease, thoko, affecting also the bones, from which few escape; but it is said to be avoidable by a sounder hygiene.

Rivers. Streams and rivers are abundant,—the latter very large in proportion to the size of the islands, affording a water-way to the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive mud flats and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, by which their fertility is increased, though at a heavy cost to the cultivator.

Geological Formation. The geological features of the group point to repeated volcanic action at considerable intervals. The tops of many of the mountains, from Kandavu in the S.W., through Nairai and Koro, to the Ringgold group in the N.E., have distinct craters, but their activity has long ceased. The various decomposing volcanic rocks-tufas, conglomerates, and basalts-mingled with decayed vegetable matter, and abundantly watered, form a very fertile soil. Most of the high peaks on the larger islands are basaltic, and the rocks generally are igneous, with occasional upheaved coral found sometimes over 1000 feet above the sea; but certain sedimentary rocks observed on Viti Levu seem to imply a nucleus of land of considerable age. Hot springs occur on Viti Levu, on Ngau, at Wainunu and Savu-Savu on Vanua Levu; the last have a temperature of 200°-210° F., and cover an area of half a square mile. Earthquakes are occasionally felt. Volcanic activity in the neighbourhood is further shown by the quantities of pumice-stone drifted on to the south coasts of Kandavu and Viti Levu; malachite, antimony, and graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron-sand

occur.

Islands. The islands number about 250, of which perhaps 80 are inhabited. Viti Levu, about 80 by 55 miles, is the largest and most important from its fertility and variety of surface, number of large rivers, and population, which is about one-third of that of the whole group. Vanua Levu, somewhat smaller, about 100 by 25 miles, and less fertile and populous, has good anchorages along its entire south coast. All the others are much smaller. Taviuui, 25 by 5 miles, with a central ridge 2100 feet high and a lake at the top, is fertile, but exceptionally devoid of harbours. Kandavu, 25 miles long and very narrow, well-timbered, with a good harbour, contains a Wesleyan training institution and model village. Fulanga and Kambara are well-timbered and frequented by canoebuilders. Totoya, Moala, Ngau, Mbengga, Nairai, Koro, are all valuable islands (the last especially fertile), 15 to 30 miles in circumference. The Wilson or Exploring group consists of seven islands of considerable size, well situated for the resort of vessels, with anchorages safe and easily reached, and supplies abundant. The navigation between the islands is in many places intricate, but the dangers can be much lessened by good surveys, careful pilotage, and increased use of steam. There are good anchorages inside the barrier reefs; the best harbours are those of Suva in Viti Levu, Savu-Savu and Mbua or Sandalwood Bays in Vanua Levu, Galoa Bay in Kandavu, and Levuka.

Vegetation. The vegetation is mostly of a tropical IndoMalayan character,-thick jungle with great trees covered with creepers and epiphytes. The lee sides of the larger islands, however, have grassy plains suitable for grazing, with scattered trees, chiefly Pandanus, and ferns. The flora has also some Australian and New Zealand affinities (resembling in this respect the New Caledonia and new Hebrides groups), shown especially in these western districts by the Pandanus, by certain acacias, epacrids, Casuarinæ, and Dammara, and by the peculiar habit of other species. At about 2000 feet the vegetation assumes a more mountain type.

The

Among the many valuable timber trees are the vesi (Afzelia bijuga); the dilo (Calophyllum Inophyllum), the oil from its seeds being much used in the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheumatism; the dakua (Dammara Vitiensis) allied to the New Zealand kauri; the vaivai (Serianthes Vitiensis), the Casuarina, and others, chiefly conifers, Guttifera, Myrtacea, and Leguminosa. Most of the fruit trees are also valuable as timber. native cloth (masi) is beaten out from the bark of the paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), cultivated for the purpose. Several useful fibres are supplied by plants of the Musacea, Bromelideæ, Thymeleæ, and other orders. Of the palms the cocoa-nut is by far the most important. Dr Seemann discovered a sago-palm known to the natives by the name of sogu, though they were then ignorant of its use. The yasi or sandalwood is now rarely found, and only in a small district at the western extremity of Vanua Levu. There are various useful drugs, spices, and perfumes; and many plants are cultivated for their beauty, to which the natives are keenly alive. Among the plants used as pot-herbs are several ferns, and two or three Solanums, one of which, S. anthropophagorum, allied to our S. nigrum, was one of certain plants always cooked with human flesh, which is said to be otherwise difficult of digestion. The use of the kava root, here called yanggona (Macropiper methysticum), from which the well-known national beverage is made, was introduced, it is said, from Tonga.

Of fruit-trees, besides the cocoa-nut, we can only mention the many varieties of the bread-fruit, of bananas and plantains, of sugar-cane and of Citrus; the wi (Spondias dulcis), the kavika (Eugenia malaccensis), the ivi er Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus edulis), the pine-apple, and others recently introduced. Edible roots are especially abundant. The chief staple of life is the yam, the names of several months in the calendar having reference to its cultivation and ripening. The Dioscorea alata is the variety chiefly planted; its roots are sometimes 8 feet long and 100 lb in weight. The kawai (D. aculeata) is also a very fine esculent, and there are several wild species. The yaka, which also grows wild, is a papilionaceous creeper (Pachyrhizus angulatus), with roots 6 to 8 feet long and as thick as a man's thigh; it is also much valued for its fibre. The taro or dalo (Colocasia esculenta) is grown in ditches, by streams, or on irrigated ground; and there are other aroideous plants growing wild, with huge edible corms. The natives use no grain or pulse, but make a kind of bread (mandrai) from the above roots, as well as from the banana (which is the best), the bread-fruit, the ivi, the kavika, the arrow-root (Tacca pinnatifida and T. sativa), and in times of scarcity the mangrove. This bread is made by burying the materials for months, till the mass is thoroughly fermented and homogeneous, when it is dug up and cooked by baking or steaming. This simple process, applicable to such a variety of substances, is a valuable security against famine.

The islands are well suited to sugar, maize, coffee, cotton (which here becomes a perennial several feet high), tobacco, manilla, india-rubber, &c.

of prey are few; the parrot and pigeon tribes are better represented; of 15 aquatic species only one is peculiar. Fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are numerous and varied; Mollusca, especially marine, and Crustacea are also very numerous. These three form an important element in the food supply.

Exports.-Numbers of cocoa-nuts have been planted, and the export of copra (the dried kernel of the nut) is rapidly increasing. The chief exports in 1876 were-copra £41,900, sugar £9036, maize £8465,-which are all on the increase; cotton £11,922, and bêche-de-mer £2491, which have decreased; coir £2727, pearl-shell, and arrowroot. The value of exports from Levuka was £80,890, of imports £112,806. The customs returns were estimated at £15,000; the native land revenue was assessed at £22,000. The revenue of 1878 is estimated at £60,000. People. The Fijian character was till lately proverbial for every savage abomination. Cannibalism, if fenced round at one time by religious sanctions, had degenerated to a morbid craving recklessly indulged whenever possible. Shipwrecked or helpless strangers were nearly always killed and eaten. Widows were strangled at the death of their husbands, slaves killed at the death of their masters; victims were slain in numbers at the building of a house or of a canoe, or at the visits of embassies from other tribes. The lives of individuals were always subject to the caprices of the chiefs. In the atmosphere of suspicion and treachery thus engendered few virtues could be developed. Yet the people were always hospitable, open-handed, and remarkably polite. They themselves attribute to affection the practice of killing their sick or aged relations. They are sensitive, proud, vindictive, boastful, cleanly in their houses, cookery, &c., with good conversational and reasoning powers, much sense of humour, tact, and perception of character. Their code of social etiquette is minute and elaborate, and the gradations of rank wellmarked. These are 1, chiefs, greater and lesser; 2, priests ; 3, Mata ni Vanua (lit., eyes of the land), employés, messengers, or counsellors; 4, distinguished warriors of low birth; 5, common people; 6, slaves.

Political Institutions.-The family is the unit of political society. The families are grouped in townships or otherwise (qali) under the lesser chiefs, who again owe allegiance to the supreme chief of the matanitu or tribe. The chiefs are a real aristocracy, excelling the people in physique, skill, intellect, and acquirements of all sorts; and the reverence felt for them, now gradually diminishing, was very great, and had something of a religious character. All that a man had belonged to his chief. On the other hand, the chief's property practically belonged to his people, and they were as ready to give as to take. In a time of famine, a chief would declare the contents of the plantations to be common property. A system of feudal service-tenures (lala) is the institution on which their social and political fabric mainly depended. It allowed the chief to call for the labour of any district, and to employ it in planting, house or canoe building, supplying food on the occasion of another chief's visit, &c., This power was often used with much discernment; thus an unpopular chief would redeem his character by calling for Some customary service and rewarding it liberally, or a district would be called on to supply labour or produce as a punishment. The privilege might of course be abused by needy ог unscrupulous chiefs, though they generally

War.-In time of war the chief claimed absolute control over life and property. Warfare was carried on with many courteous formalities, and considerable skill was shown in the fortifications. There were well-defined degrees of dependence among the different tribes or districts: the first of these, bati, is an alliance between two nearly equal tribes, but implying a sort of inferiority on one side, acknowledged by military service; the second, gali, implies greater subjection, and payment of tribute. Thus A, being bati to B, might hold C in qali, in which case C was also reckoned subject to B, or might be protected by B for political purposes.

Religion. The people are now almost all Christians. Their former creed, which had much in common with the Polynesian, included a belief in a future existence, and in two classes of gods,--the first immortal, of whom Ndengei is the greatest, said to exist eternally in the form of a serpent, but troubling himself little with human or other affairs, and the others had usually only a local recognition. The second rank (who, though far above mortals, are subject to their passions, and even to death) comprised the spirits of chiefs, heroes, and other ancestors. The gods entered and spoke through their priests, who thus pronounced on the issue of every enterprise, but they were not repre sented by idols; certain groves and trees were held sacred, and stones which suggest phallic associations. The priesthood usually was hereditary, and their influence great, and they had generally a good understanding with the chief. The institution of Tabu existed in full force. The mburé or temple was also the council chamber and place of assemblage for various purposes.

Customs.-They have various games and amusements, dancing, story-telling, and songs being especially popular. Their poetry has well-defined metres, and a sort of rhyme. Their music is rude, and is said to be always in the major key. The excellence of their pottery favours a good and varied cuisine, and they have great and elaborate feasts; the preparations are sometimes made months in advance, and enormous waste results from them. Mourning is expressed by fasting, by shaving the head and face, or by cutting off the little finger. This last is sometimes done at the death of a rich man in the hope that his family will reward the compliment; sometimes it is done vicariously, as when the chief cuts off the little finger of his dependants in regret or in atonement for the death of another. Only the women are tattooed.2

Houses.-The houses, of which the framework is timber and the rest lattice and thatch, are ingeniously constructed, with great taste in ornamentation, and are well furnished with mats, musquito-curtains, baskets, fans, nets, and cooking and other utensils.

Population.-The population forty years ago was about

Of the 4 million acres in Fiji, 854,956 acres, comprising all the best land, were purchased by whites before the annexation; but all the titles have not yet (1878) been confirmed.

2 It will be understood that in the present state of transition some of the curious polivy and customs here recorded are becoming obsolete.

200,000, it has since rapidly diminished, owing at first to the evils above described (aggravated probably by contact with the vicious European element), and afterwards to that fatal languor which so often accompanies the introduction of civilization, the deaths now outnumbering the births. Before the annexation to Britain (1874) there were about 140,000, but 40,000 fell victims to measles soon after. This diminution might perhaps be combated by the encouragement of their old athletic sports under an enlightened Christianity. The exact ethnological position of the people is a problem. They occupy the extreme east limits of Papuan territory, but far surpass the pure examples of that race, combining their dark colour, harsh hirsute skin, crisp hair,1 and muscular limbs with the handsome features of the brown Polynesian race. They are tall and well-proportioned, the average physical development being much higher than our own. The features are strongly marked, but not unpleasant, the eyes deep set, the beard thick and bushy. The chiefs are fairer, much better looking, and of a less negroid cast of face than the people. This negroid type is especially marked on the west coasts, and still more in the interior of Viti Levu. Many other characteristics of both races are found,―e.g., the quick intellect of the fairer, and the savagery and suspicion of the dark; they wear a minimum of covering, but, unlike the Melanesians, are strictly decent, while they are more moral than the Polynesians. A partial circumcision is practised, which is exceptional with the Melanesians, nor have these usually an elaborate political and social system like that of Fiji. The status of the women is also somewhat better,—those of the upper class having considerable freedom and influence. Till taught by the Tongans they were, like other Melanesians, timid sailors. The prevalence of one language (though in several dialects) contrasts with the endless. variety among the Melanesians. It is copious, flexible, It is copious, flexible, vigorous, fundamentally Melanesian, but largely modified in vocabulary and even in structure by the Polynesian. It has been argued from, among other considerations, the number of places with Tongan names, and from certain old Tongan traditions, that the ancestors of that people, in their migration from the west, were, after remaining a long time in Fiji, finally expelled thence by the aboriginal and darker race. Fijian traditions, however, point to no such movement, only asserting the greater unity of the race in former times, and placing even the creation of man, the scene of the deluge, and of the building of a tower of Babel, on Fijian soil. At all events the Fijian is a well-established race, and the fusion of the elements which produced it certainly dates from a remote past.

If less readily amenable to civilizing influences than their neighbours to the eastward, they show greater force of character and ingenuity. Possessing the arts of both races they practise them with greater skill than either. They understand the principle of division of labour and production, and thus of commerce. They are skilful cultivators, and good boat-builders, the carpenters being an hereditary caste; there are also tribes of fishermen and sailors; their mats, baskets, nets, cordage, and other fabrics are substantial and tasteful; their pottery, made-like much of the above-by women, is far superior to any other in the South Seas, but, with many other native manufactures, is being supplanted by European articles.

History.-A few islands in the N.E. of the group were first seen by Tasman in 1643. The southernmost of the group, Turtle Island, was discovered by Cook in 1773. Bligh visited them in 1789, and Captain Wilson of the "Duff" in 1797. In 1827

1 The elaborate mop into which the hair is trained (as among certain tribes in East Africa and elsewhere) has led to the belief that its peculiar appearance is due to irregular aggregations of the follicles, but this has been disproved.

D'Urville in the "Astrolabe " surveyed them much more accurately, but the first thorough survey was that of the United States exploring expedition in 1840.

Up to this time, owing to the evil reputation of the islanders, European intercourse was very limited. About the year 1804 some escaped convicts from Australia and runaway sailors established themselves around the east part of Viti Levu, and by lending their services to the neighbouring chiefs probably led to their preponderance over the rest of the group. Na Ulivau, chief of the small island of Mbau, established before his death in 1829 a sort of supremacy, which was extended by his brother Tanoa, and by Tanoa's son, the well-known Thakombau, a ruler of considerable capacity. In people 250 miles to the S.E. (see FRIENDLY ISLANDS), who had long his time, however, difficulties thickened. The Tongans, a Polynesian frequented Fiji (especially for canoe-building, their own islands being deficient in timber), now came in larger numbers, led by an able and ambitious chief, Maafu, who, by adroitly taking part in ing Thakombau's supremacy. He was harassed, too, by an arbitrary Fijian quarrels, made himself chief in the Windward group, threatendemand for £9000 from the American Government, for alleged in-. juries to their consul. Several chiefs who disputed his authority were crushed by the aid of King George of Tonga, who (1855) had opportunely arrived on a visit; but he afterwards, taking some offence, demanded £12,000 for his services. At last Thakombau, disappointed in the hope that his acceptance (1854) of Christianity would improve his position, offered (1858) the sovereignty to England, with the fee simple of 100,000 acres, on condition of her paying the American claims. Colonel Smythe, R.A., was sent out to report on the question, and decided against annexation, but advised that the British consul should be invested with full magisterial powers over his countrymen, a step which would have averted much subsequent difficulty.

the islands, followed by a time of depression in Australia and New Meanwhile Dr Seemann's favourable report on the capabilities of Zealand, led to a rapid increase of settlers-from 200 in 1860 to 1800 in 1869. This produced fresh complications, and an increasing desire among the respectable settlers for a competent civil and criminal jurisdiction. Attempts were made at self-government, and the sovereignty was again offered, conditionally, to England, and to the United States. Finally, in 1871, a 66 constitutional government" was formed by certain Englishmen under King Thakombau; but this, after incurring heavy debt, and promoting the welfare of neither whites nor natives, came after three years to a dead lock, and the British Government felt obliged, in the interest of all parties, to accept the unconditional cession now offered. It had besides long been thought desirable to possess a station on the route between Australia and Panama; it was also felt that the Polynesian labour traffic, the abuses in which had caused much indignation, could only be effectually regulated from a point so contiguous to the recruiting field, and where that labour was extensively employed. To this end the governor of Fiji is also "High Commissioner for the Western Pacific.' Native laws, customs, and polity have been tenderly handled, and utilized, as far as possible, under the new rule. The chiefs are held responsible for good order, and for payment of the revenue. Certain higher chiefs, called "Roko Tuis," receive salaries, with executive and magisterial powers, assisted in the latter function by a large number of native subordinates, "Bulis," all under the eye of a very few European stipendiary magistrates. The employment of native labour is under strict regulations. The revenue is raised in conformity with native ideas, each district being assessed yearly to furnish certain supplies in kind, which are disposed of by tender. The white settlers at the end of 1876 numbered 1569.

The labours of the Wesleyan missionaries must always have a prominent place in any history of Fiji. They came from Tonga in 1835, and naturally settled first in the Windward Islands, where the Tongan element, already familiar to them, preponderated. They perhaps identified themselves too closely with their Tongan friends, whose dissolute, lawless, tyrannical conduct led to much mischief; but it should not be forgotten that their position was a difficult one; their services to humanity were certainly great, and it was mainly through their efforts that the heathen abominations so recently in full vigour have become a thing of the past.

Bibliography.-The United States Exploring Expedition, by Wilkes and Hale, 1838-42; Viti: an account of a Government Mission in the Vitian or Fijian Islands, 1860-1, by Seemann; Williams, Fiji and the Fijians, and Calvert, Missionary Labours among the Cannibals; Meinicke, Die Inseln des Stillen Oceans; Von der Gabelentz, Die Melanesischen Sprachen; Erskine, Journal of a Cruise in the Pacific; Smythe, Ten Months in the Fiji Islands; Findlay's Sailing Directory for the Pacific Occan; Pritchard, (C. T.) Polynesian Reminiscences; Parliamentary papers.

FILANGIERI, CARLO (1783-1867), an Italian general, son of the economist Gaetano Filangieri, was born at Naples in 1783, not long before his father's death. In 1799 he came to France, and, through the influence of the first

Scienza della Legislazione, on which he was engaged, and to which, rather than to practice at the bar, he had all along been devoting his chief attention. The first and second books, containing respectively an exposition of the rules on which legislation in general ought to proceed, and a discussion of political and economic laws in particular, appeared at Naples, 1780. Its success was great and immediate. Not only in Italy, but throughout Europe at large, the author forthwith took rank with the most celebrated publicists,with his own countrymen Gravina, Vico, and Beccaria, and with the illustrious Montesquieu. Although in the course of his observations he had found it necessary to point out many faults committed by his own Government, so skilfully had he discharged the delicate task of stating obnoxious truths without giving offence to those in power that he was promoted by the king to a commandery in the royal order of Constantine. In 1783 he was married to Caroline von Frendel, an Hungarian lady; and in order that he might the more fully enjoy domestic happiness, and at the same time have leisure for the composition of his work, on which he became every day more intent, he, with the consent of the king, resigned all his military appointments and his offices at court, and retired to a country seat at Cava, some twenty miles from Naples. In the same year he published the third book of his Scienza, relating entirely to the principles of criminal jurisprudence. Even his earlier volumes had not failed to rouse the antipathies of an interested and influential class; but in this certain sugges tions which he had made as to the need for reform in the Roman Catholic Church called forth the censure of the ecclesiastical tribunals, and his book was condemned by the congregation of the Index in 1784. In the following year he nevertheless published three additional volumes, dealing with education and morals, these forming the fourth book of his great work. He was proceeding with the preparation of the remaining three books, but his health was now considerably impaired, owing to an excess of application, so that composition advanced but slowly; and other interruptions soon followed. In 1787 the new king, Ferdinand IV., summoned him to Naples to assist in the council of finance; and there for a time he was wholly engrossed with this important public business. But severe domestic misfortunes, combined with over-work, soon compelled his withdrawal from office once more. He had just finished the first part of his fifth book, in which he treats of the different systems of religion which preceded Christianity, when he died on the 21st of July 1788. Of the second part of the same book he had only made a rude sketch, in which were noted down the principal subjects of discussion, such as the advantages of Christianity, and the dangers of superstition; the inconveniences of not distinguishing the spiritual from the temporal power; the evils of an ignorant, venal, excessively wealthy clergy. He was then to have considered the principles of ecclesiastical jurisprudence; and a chapter on toleration was to have completed the book. In the sixth book he proposed to treat of the laws relating to property; and in the seventh and last, of those regarding the patria potestas and the government of families. It is much to be regretted that the author was not spared to complete his great work. Though unfinished, it has exercised considerable influence on the thought and feeling of Europe, particularly in Italy, where, at the time of its publication, the feudal system of legislation was still in full force. In some portions, particularly in the chapters on criminal law, it is not even now out of date. Filangieri had also other important works in contemplation when he died. One, of which he had written a short fragment, was to have been entitled Nuova Scienza delle Scienze; another was to have contained a system of universal history.

FILANGIERI, GAETANO (1752-1788), au eminent Italian publicist, was born at Naples on the 18th of August 1752. He was the third son of Cæsar prince of Arianiello, and through his mother he was connected with the ducal house of Fragnito. Gaetano was from his infancy destined for the profession of arms; when only seven years of age he received a military appointment, and at fourteen he began actual service. His early years gave no promise of future distinction; he seems originally to have manifested a positive dislike for the classics, while his interest in the exact sciences, it is said, was first awakened at a comparatively mature age by a trivial circumstance. His brother's tutor had made a mistake in the solution of a mathematical problem; Gaetano had been acute enough to discover and rectify the error. From that day his great intellectual powers began to develop rapidly, and such was his diligence that, at twenty years of age, besides being well grounded in mathematical science, he had acquired a competent knowledge of Latin and Greek, of ancient and modern history, as well as of the principles of law, and, moreover, had composed a couple of essays, one on "Educational Reform " and another on the "Morals of Princes." Meanwhile he had quitted the military service, and, yielding to the wishes of his friends rather than to his own inclinations, had entered on the profession of the law. At the bar his knowledge and eloquence soon secured his success, and special circumstances still further helped his advancement. In the year 1774 King Charles III. of Naples, at the instance of his minister Tanucci, had issued a much-needed ordinance for the reform of abuses in the administration of justice. Although this reform had been generally welcomed, it had excited the murmurs of the bar. Filangieri now became the advocate of the court, and published a defence of the royal decree founded upon the most enlarged views of law and equity. The extensive knowledge and matured judgment displayed in this performance called forth the warm commendation of Tanucci, who encouraged its author pursue the course in which he had already acquired so much distinction. Through this influence and that of his uncle the archbishop of Palermo he received, in 1777, several honourable appointments at court; but his residence there neither broke in upon his regular habits of life, nor interrupted the course of his studies; nor did he allow it to interfere with the composition of the great work, La

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