FOWNES, GEORGE (1815-1849), Ph.D., F.R.S., an eminent chemist, was born in London. He early showed an interest in scientific pursuits, and when seventeen or eighteen years of age joined with Dr Henry Watts and Mr Everett in establishing a philosophical class at the Western Literary Institution in Leicester Square. In 1837 he entered the laboratory of Everett, lecturer on chemistry at the Middlesex Hospital; and in 1839 he studied for some time under Professor Liebig at Giessen. He was lecturer on chemistry first at the Charing Cross and then at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, as also at the school of the Pharmaceutical Society. In 1845 he was appointed director of the Birkbeck Chemical Laboratory in University College, London. He died of consumption, January 31, 1849. Besides his well-known and frequently re-edited Manual of Chemistry, and the Acton prize essay of the Royal Institution, entitled Chemistry, as exemplifying the Wisdom and Beneficence of God, Fownes wrote numerous scientific papers, among others the following :"On the Direct Formation of Cyanogen from its Elements," Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1841, part ii. pp. 52, 53; "On the Preparation of Artificial Yeast," Mem. Chem. Soc., i., 1841-43, pp. 100-103; "On the Preparation of Hippuric Acid," Phil. Mag., xxi., 1842, pp. 382-384; "On the Food of Plants" [prize essay], Jour. Agric. Soc., iv., 1843, pp. 498-556; "On the Existence of Phosphoric Acid in Rocks of Igneous Origin," Phil. Trans., 1844, pp. 53-56; "An Account of the Artificial Formation of a Vegeto-alkali (Furfurol), and "On Benzoline," ib., 1845, pp. 253-268; the Production of Furfurol," Pharm. Journ., 1849, 113-116; "On the Equivalent or Combining Volumes of Solid Bodies," ib., pp. 334-339.

On

FOX (Vulpes), a genus of digitigrade Carnivora, belonging to the Canidae or dog family, but differing from the true dogs (Canis) in the greater elongation and sharpness of the muzzle, and in the greater length and bushiness of the tail. They likewise differ in the pupil of the eye being elliptical when contracted, and in the possession of a subcaudal gland, in which a fetid substance is secreted, the emission of which gives to foxes their peculiarly disagreeable odour. There are 24 recent species of foxes known, distributed over all the great continents except South America and Australia. Of these the Fennec foxes are exclusively African, and the bristle-tailed foxes North American. The Common Fox (Vulpes vulgaris), the pet of the hunting field and the pest of the farmyard, occurs throughout Europe, wherever it has not been exterminated by man. It is the Scottish tod and the French renard. It measures about two feet in length exclusive of the tail, which is about a foot long Its fur is of a reddish-brown colour above, and more or less white beneath; the back of its ears and the fore part of its limbs are black, and the tip of its bushy tail, or brush as it is called, is white. Its long, sharp muzzle, erect pointed ears, and sharp eye give it an appearance of sagacity and cunning which its real character fully justifies. The fox is undoubtedly the subtlest of British beasts of the field, its intellectual capacity having no doubt been enlarged by the peculiarly hard conditions under which alone it is permitted to exist in this country. It is regularly hunted by the fleet and keen-scented foxhounds, urged on by mounted huntsmen, all of whom are not unfrequently baffled by the speed, cunning, and ingenuity of this wily creature. The fox is a solitary animal, inhabiting a burrow known as its earth, which it either excavates for itself, or, as more usually happens, obtains by previously ejecting the badger or the rabbit from its home. So averse, indeed, is the fox to dig for itself, that when foiled in its attempts to dispossess the badger, it has been known to take up its quarters with the latter, and in Germany it is readily induced to make its home in artificial burrows, constructed of stone and earth for the purpose of facilitating the operation of digging out the cubs. The fox also occurs in woods. and even in the

open country without burrows, lying in its "cover" by day and stealing forth at night, when alone it can be said to see properly, in search of its prey. Its food consists of rabbits, hares, poultry, and game-birds, although when these are not to be had it is fain to satisfy its hunger with rats, mice, and even insects-" the droppings of these creatures," says Bell, "being often composed. almost entirely of the wing cases of beetles." The fox also visits the sea-shore, where it feeds on shell-fish and crustaceans; and on the Continent it is said to frequent the vineyards in order to gratify its taste for ripe grapes. Although the flesh of most birds forms its favourite food, it is a curious circumstance, noticed by Dr Weissenborn, that even the severest hunger cannot compel it to eat the flesh of birds of prey, while there is good reason to believe that the fox enjoys, if it does not even prefer, "high" meat. The female produces her young in April-the period of gestation extending from 60 to 65 days. These are usually from 5 to 8 in number, and for them she shows the greatest solicitude, defending them with the utmost courage, and exhibiting a boldness altogether foreign to her character at other times. The cubs attain their full size in about 18 months, and the duration of life in the species, judging from individuals kept in confinement, probably extends to 13 or 14 years. The cubs, like those of most Carnivora, are exceedingly playful, and may often be seen amusing themselves, after the manner of young dogs, in pursuit of their own brushes. Their resemblance to the dog does not, however, extend much further, for, unlike it, they seem incapable of attachment to man. Although taken young and brought up with dogs, their attachment does not go beyond refraining from biting the hand that is accustomed to feed them. They remain timid and suspicious, and are always ready to snap at any one seeking to be familiar. This incapability of domestication, and the fact that the dog and fox have never been known to interbreed, would seem to prove that these animals are by no means so nearly related as was at one time supposed. Ample proof of the very considerable intellectual capacity of the fox is to be found in the stratagems to which it has recourse in securing its prey, but still more in the quickness with which it detects man's strategic efforts to outwit and capture it. "Its instinctive cunning," says Bell, "leads it soon to suspect the wiles of its enemies, and it will in a very short time ascertain the design of a trap or a gin, though concealed with the utmost care. Nothing can exceed the caution with which reynard approaches and examines the baited trap, or the nonchalance with which he approaches, enters, and rifles the snare in which some animal has been already caught, and which he evidently knows can do him no injury until reset. There are also several well-authenticated cases of the fox counterfeiting death in order to escape from its enemies. Attempts have been made to put a different interpretation on such instances, but examples of "feigning" have of late years been noticed in so many and such diverse animals, among insects, reptiles, birds, and mammals,-that there seems no reason to doubt that the wily fox has recourse to a stratagem which, for want of a better term, may be described as counterfeiting death.

Closely allied to the common fox of Europe is the Red Fox (Vulpes fulvus) of eastern North America, regarded by many naturalists as only a variety of the common speciesan opinion which receives some confirmation from the fact that hitherto no remains of the red fox have been found in the cave deposits of that continent, although remains of the grey fox are abundant. It may thus possibly be the descendant of individuals of the European species, introduced at a comparatively early period, and owing the differences that now distinguish it to the greatly altered conditions under which for centuries it has existed. It is

altogether larger than the common fox of Europe, and the fur is longer and softer, the colour more brilliant, and the muzzle less extended. According to Sir J. Richardson, it preys largely on the smaller animals of the rat family, and is very fond of fish. "The red fox," he says, "does not possess the wind of its English congener. It runs for about 100 yards with great swiftness, but its strength is exhausted in the first burst, and it is soon overtaken by a wolf or a mounted horseman." In Canada and the United States it is largely hunted for its valuable fur, about 60,000 skins of this species being annually imported into the London market. There are several well-known varieties of the red fox, as the cross fox and the black or silver fox. The latter is very scarce, and its fur is more valuable than any other found in North America. La Hontan states that in his time a skin of the silver fox was worth its weight in gold, and an unusually fine skin has been sold in the London market for £50. The fur is sometimes of a uniform black shining colour, except at the tip of the tail, which is white; but more usually it has a hoary appearance from the admixture of white tipped hairs with those entirely black. This fox is exceedingly shy and difficult of approach, owing probably to the persistency with which it is hunted by the fur traders. About 1600 skins of the silver fox are annually imported into Britain. The Arctic Fox (Vulpes lagopus) is an inhabitant of the boreal regions of Europe, Asia, and America. It is somewhat smaller than the European fox, its ears being less pointed and the muzzle shorter. The soles of its feet are densely furred, resembling those of a hare, hence its specific name, lagopus. As with many Arctic animals the colour of its fur changes with the season, being in most cases of a pure white colour in winter, with the exception of a few black hairs at the extremity of the tail. Towards the end of April, however, when the Arctic snows begin to disappear, the long white fur gives place to shorter hair of a dark brown or sooty colour. Occasionally a dark-coloured fox may be seen in winter, and a white one in summer, and in Iceland, according to Professor Newton, the winter coat differs very slightly in colour from that of summer, probably owing to the comparatively mild character of the Icelandic winter. The Arctic fox has little of the proverbial cunning of its kind, having been seen to walk unsuspiciously into the trap which had been baited in its presence. It is an exceedingly cleanly animal, and the fetid odour characteristic of the entire genus is almost absent in this species. It differs also from the common fox in being gregarious, living, according to Richardson, in little villages consisting of 20 or 30 burrows placed near each other. The Arctic foxes seek their food, which consists of lemmings, birds, eggs, and carrion, at night, and their first impulse, says Captain Lyon, on securing it is to hide it, even though suffering severely from hunger. It was suggested some years ago by Professor Newton that this species supported itself during winter on a store of provisions laid up during summer, and Captain Feilden was able during the recent polar expedition (1875) to confirm this. When in Grinnell Land he and his companions came upon Arctic foxes, and were greatly surprised on discovering numerous deposits of dead lemmings. "In one nook, says Captain Feilden, "under a rock we pulled out over 50; we disturbed numerous caches of 20 and 30, and the ground was honeycombed with holes, each of which contained several bodies of these little animals, a small quantity of earth being placed over them (A Voyage to the Polar Sea, by Captain Sir G. Nares, 1878). Nearly 10,000 skins of the Arctic fox, chiefly in winter fur, are annually brought into Britain.

Foxes are found fossil in caverns in many parts of Europe, and extinct species occur in the Tertiary deposits of both hemispheres. (J. GI.)

FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806), born on the 24th of January 1749, at 9 Conduit Street, in the city of Westminster, was the third son of Henry Fox, first Lord Holland. His mother was the eldest daughter of the second duke of Richmond. As his great-great-grandmother was duchess of Portsmouth, he had in his veins the blood of Charles II. of England and Henry IV. of France. His paternal grandfather, Sir Stephen Fox, was born shortly after Charles I. ascended the throne, and died shortly after the accession of George I. The public services of this member of the Fox family have received less notice than they deserve. He was a yeoman's son who, having been taught to read, write, and cipher, was considered capable of rising in the world. When a youth he first obtained a situation in the household of the earl of Northumberland; then he entered the service of Lord Percy, the earl's brother, and he was present with the royalist army at the battle of Worcester as Lord Percy's deputy at the ordnance board. Accompanying Charles II. in his flight to the Continent, he served him in a menial capacity during his exile, till he was promoted to be keeper of the privy purse. He was employed as intermediary between the king and General Monk. Honours and emolument were his reward after the Restoration; he was knighted, and appointed to the lucrative offices of clerk of the green cloth and paymaster of the forces. He entered the House of Commons, first as member for Salisbury, and secondly for Westminster. He succeeded the earl of Rochester as a commissioner of the treasury, filling that office for 23 years and during three reigns. At the mature age of seventy-seven he married for the second time; four children were the issue of this marriage. He died in 1716 at the age of eighty-nine, and left a large fortune. It is his distinction to have founded Chelsea hospital, and to have contributed £13,000 in aid of this laudable public work. Though his place as a statesman is in the second or even the third rank, yet he was a useful man in his generation, and a public servant who creditably discharged all the duties with which he was entrusted. Unlike other statesmen of his day, he grew rich in the service of the nation without being suspected of corruption, and without forfeiting the esteem of his contemporaries. Sir Stephen Fox's second son by his second marriage was named Henry. Inheriting a large share of the riches which his father had accumulated, he squandered it soon after attaining his majority. Henry Fox went to the Continent to escape from his creditors. There he made the acquaintance of a countrywoman of fortune, who became his patroness and was so lavish with her purse that, after several years' absence, he was in a position to return home and to enter parliament as member for Hindon. He became the favourite pupil and devoted supporter of Sir Robert Walpole, achieving unequalled and unenviable proficiency in the worst political arts of his master and model. As a speaker he was fluent and self-possessed, imperturbable under attack, audacious in exposition or retort, and able to hold his own against Pitt himself. Thus he made himself a power in the House of Commons, and an indispensable member of several administrations. He heaped up riches when acting as paymaster of the forces during the war which Pitt conducted with extraordinary vigour, and in which the nation was intoxicated with glory. He served under the earl of Bute in order that he might exercise his skill in cajolery and corruption to induce the House of Commons to approve of the treaty of Paris; as a recompense, he was raised to the House of Lords with the title of Baron Holland. He strove, but in vain, to obtain promotion to the dignity of an earl, a dignity upon which he had set his heart, and he died a sorely disappointed man, with a reputation for cunning and unscrupulousness which cannot easily be matched, and with

an unpopularity which justifies the conclusion that he was the most thoroughly hated statesman of his day. Henry Fox's affection for his son Charles James verged on idolatry. The boy was both precocious and engaging. Whatever he chose to learn, he acquired with ease, and he displayed more than a boy's good sense in correcting his faults. Once he overheard his mother, with whom he was no favourite, remark to his father, "Charles is dreadfully passionate; what shall we do with him?" and the reply, "Oh, never mind; he is a very sensible little fellow, and he will learn to cure himself." Thereupon he resolved to repress his angry passions, and he succeeded in rendering himself a pattern for gentle bearing and command of temper. He went to Eton when he was nine, having spent the preceding year, at his own request, in the school kept at Wandsworth by Pampelonne, a French refugee. The boy's health was delicate, and this caused his father much anxiety. He was not diligent in learning, nor was his tendency towards indolence at school counteracted by the discipline to which he was subjected. The Rev. Dr Francis, his tutor, sent to his father accounts more flattering than just of his son's progress and attention, and better fitted to gratify parental fondness than set forth the truth. He often went home in order to accompany his parents to some notable spectacle, chief among them being the coronation of George III., where he met with a slight accident, which, being reported in the newspapers, caused his father to write, "The article [in the newspapers] of Charles's mishap has brought several messages. The boy is a great deal better beloved than his father is." When fourteen he left school for four months, which he spent with his parents at Spa and Paris. His father taught him to game at Spa, giving him several gold pieces wherewith to try his luck, as the saying is, every evening. Hence he early became addicted to the vice which was for some years his besetting sin, and for which he could urge no other excuse, when taunted with it later by Lord Hillsborough in the House of Commons, than that it was a vice "countenanced by the fashion of the times, a vice to which some of the greatest characters had given way in the early part of their lives, and a vice which carried with it its own punishment, and entailed a curse upon those who were addicted to it." He returned to Eton thinking himself a thorough young man of the world; but his dandified airs only excited the ridicule of his comrades, and Dr Barnard, the head master, by flogging him for misconduct, made him feel keenly that he was still a mere schoolboy. More instructive and advantageous than trips to the Continent and visits to Continental gaming houses were the visits which he made to the Houses of Parliament, in company with his father, to hear important debates. He was in the gallery of the House of Commons when Lord North moved "that the paper entitled the North Briton is a false, scandalous, and seditious libel." His father impressed upon him that John Wilkes was a bad man, and that the earl of Bute was a sagacious minister; these opinions were embodied by him in some French verses, which injudicious admirers have reproduced to show his want of mastery over the French language, and the absurdity of his boyish political sentiments. Leaving Eton in 1764, Fox went to Oxford, where he entered Hertford College. In a letter to his friend Mr Macartney, he professed a great liking for Oxford and fondness for mathematics, adding, in another letter, that he believed mathematics were useful, and was sure they were entertaining, this being enough, in his opinion, to recommend them. The same letter contained his judgment on a newly published poem, which is far less paradoxical and more creditable to his discernment than the foregoing statement concerning mathematics. The poem was the Traveller, which the youthful critic pronounced, with perfect truth,

"to have a good deal of merit." A trip to Paris and a stay there of two months interrupted Fox's university career. Dr Newcome, the head of his college, readily sanctioned this holiday, making the complimentary remark that such application as his required "some intermission, and you are the only person with whom I have ever had connexion to whom I could say this. You need not interrupt your amusements by severe studies; for it is wholly unnecessary to make a step onward without you, and therefore we shall stop until we have the pleasure of your company." This visit to the capital of France was no more serviceable to him, in a moral sense, than his previous one. His father encouraged him to indulge himself without stint in pleasures to which young men are only too prone, and, what is still more blameworthy, jested at the scruples of a son who had no strong liking for vicious courses. On his return to Oxford he worked hard at his studies, spending the greater part of a vacation in systematic reading along with his friend Dickson, who was afterwards bishop of Down. Their leisure was devoted to perusing the works of the early English dramatists, all of which they read. Taking his degree in 1766, he left Oxford and spent the succeeding two years in Continental travel, traversing France and Italy, either in company with his parents, or else with his friends Lord Carlisle, Lord Fitzwilliam, and Mr Uvedale Price. Along with Mr Price he visited Voltaire at Ferney, where he was heartily welcomed by the great Frenchman for his father's sake, and was advised to read Voltaire's published works in order that he might emancipate himself from religious prejudices and increase his stock of ideas. He became a proficient in speaking the French tongue, and he practised himself in writing it by penning poetical epistles in French to his friend Fitzpatrick. He also mastered Italian, which he admired beyond measure, saying that there was more good poetry in Italian than in all other languages that I understand put together." He was then passionately fond of amateur acting and of wearing fine clothes. In after days his friends could scarcely credit the assurance of the friends of his youth when the latter stated that Fox, who had become a sloven in dress, was once a "macaroni," having made a journey from Paris to Lyons in order to buy waistcoats, and was in the habit of walking about with a little French hat on his head and red-heeled shoes on his feet. As difficult was it for some among them to realize that Fox, the leader of the Whigs, and even further advanced in Liberal opinions than the majority of his party, had been such a Tory at the outset of his parliamentary career as to write to George Selwyn in the following terms: "I am reading Clarendon, but scarcely get on faster than you did with your Charles V. I think the style bad, and that he has a great deal of the old woman in his way of thinking, but hate the opposite party so much that it gives one a kind of partiality for him.' Hating the opposite party so thoroughly, it is not surprising that he should have been inimical to the first administration of the marquis of Rockingham, an administration that repealed the Stamp Act which George Grenville had designed to raise a revenue in the American Colonies, an administration which was far too liberal in tendency and independent in character to suit the narrow and personal views of George III., and that he should have written to Sir George Macartney, "every body laughs at its members, holds them cheap, but, according to the fashionable phrase, doing justice to their good intentions." In 1768, when still under age, Fox was returned for Midhurst, then a pocket borough. His father having made the arrangements necessary for his election had thereby provided a supporter of the ministry of the day which the earl of Chatham had formed, and in which the duke of Grafton was first lord of the treasury. Fox's maiden speech in the