German sch and English sh, and of t for the German k; and, still more remarkable, the modification of k and g into ts when these letters precede e or i, as in tserke for kerke, i.e., kirk, church. The explanation of this last peculiarity may perhaps be found in the contact of the Frisian with Slavonic languages, in which the modification is sufficiently common. A brief sketch of Frisian grammar was published along with the poems of Gysbert Japicx; but the first separate treatment of the older forms of the language was by Rask, whose Frisisk Sproglære (Copenhagen, 1825; German translation by Buss, Freiburg, 1834) brought him into controversy with Grimm, who, in his Deutschen Grammatik, devoted some attention to the same subject. Moritz, Heyne has also given a good treatment of Frisian in his Kurze Laut- und Flexionslehre der Altgermanischen Sprachstämme, 1874. Richthofen's Altfriesisches Wörterbuch, Göttingen, 1840, practically supplanted the older work of Wiarda (Aurich, 1786), and its position has not been affected by the publication of Haan Hattema's Idioticon Frisicum, Leeuwarden, 1874. Outzen's Glossarium der Friesischen Sprache (unfortunately a posthumous publication from very illegible manuscripts), Copenhagen, 1837, deals mainly with North Frisian. For West Frisian we have the posthumous and incomplete Lexicon Frisicum (A-Feeor), by Justus Halbertsma, The Hague, 1874; and for East Frisian lexicography we have materials in Ehrentraut's Friesisches Archiv, Oldenburg, 1847-54, 2 vols., Posthumus and Halbertsma's Onze reis naar Sageltesland, Franeker, 1836, and J. Cadovius Müller's Memoriale linguæ frisico, written in the early part of the 18th century, and published by Dr Kükelhan, 1875. J. ten Doornkaat Koolman began in 1877 a Wörterbruch der Ostfriesischen Sprache, which, along with much irrelevant matter, contains valuable contributions to the subject. The Ostfriesisches Wörterbuch, by Sturenburg (1857), is a dictionary, not of Frisian, but of the Low German spoken in East Friesland, which has incorporated comparatively few Frisian words. Frisian personal names forms an appendix to Outzen's Glossarium; and Bernhard Brons, in his Friesische Namen und Mittheilungen Darüber, Emden, 1877, furnishes lists of East, West, and North Frisian Christian names, and a collection of Frisian family names, with the dates at which they make their first appearance in church books or other historical documents.

A list of

For the older forms of the language the sources are unfortunately scanty: no great literary monument like that of the Heliand or the Nibelunglied has been preserved, and the investigator has mainly to depend on the various legal codes or collections which were formed in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries, and have been published by Richthofen, Friesische Rechtsquellen, Berlin, 1840. The great Lex Frisionum is composed in Latin, and only contains a few Frisian terms, of comparatively small linguistic importance. The date of its recension is also a matter of conjecture, as there is no contemporary evidence either internal or external. By the older investigators it was assigned a high antiquity; but the more modern are for the most part of opinion that it is not earlier than the reign of Charlemagne. Haan Hettema in his Oude Friesche Wetten gives 802-804 as the probable date; while Richthofen thinks there are three portions, the first composed for use in Middle Frisia in the reign of Charles Martel or of Pippin, another for use in all Frisia, composed after Charlemagne's conquest in 785, and a third or supplementary and emendatory portion composed in 802. The first edition of the Lex Frisionum was published by B. J. Herold in his Originum ac Germanicarum Antiquitatum libri, Basel, 1557, but he gives no indication of the source of the manuscripts which he employed. Since his day there have been no fewer than 13 editions-Lindenbrog, Codex legum Antiquarum, Frankfort, 1613; Sibrand Siccama, Lex Frisionum, Franeker, 1617; Schotanus, Beschryvinge van de Heerlyckheit van Frieslandt, 1664; Gärtner, Saxonum leges tres: accessit Lex Fris., Leipsic, 1730; Georgisch, Corpus juris Germanici, Halle, 1738; Schwartzenberg, Groot Placaat en Charterboek van Vriesland, Leeuwarden, 1768; Canciani, Barbarorum legs antiquæ, Venice, 1781; Walter, Corpus juris German., Berlin, 1824; Gaupp, Lex Fris., Breslau, 1832; Richthofen, Friesische Rechtsquellen, Berlin, 1840; De Wall, Lex Fris., &c., Amsterdam, 1850; Hettema, Oude Fr. Wetten, Leeuwarden, 1851; and, finally, Richthofen in Pertz's Mon. Germaniæ hist., vol. xv., Hanover, 1863. Though it has been supposed that Lindenbrog and Siccama may have had access to some manuscript authority in addition to Herold's recension, there is no proof that such was the case; and the text still remains to all intents in the same state as when Herold left it. Some investigators have, owing to this absence of original evidence, even cast doubts on the authenticity of the code, but a comparison of the laws with undoubtedly genuine Frisian remains authorizes its acceptance. "I am convinced," says Richthofen, "that no man in the time of Herold, not to say in our own time, could have devised such a forgery as the Heroldian text." Among the minor collections of Frisian laws in Frisian, Low German and Latin are the " seventeen general acts or Küren," dating from the close of the 12th century, according to Richthofen, but of

much earlier origin according to Leding-the Upstalsbom laws of 1323, the local laws of Rüstring, and of the Brockmannen or Domen," or Emsig decisions, published by Hettema, Leeuwarden, inhabitants of Brockmerland, published by Wiarda; the Emsiger 1830; the Fivelgo laws, published by Hettema, Dokkum, 1841; and the Hunsingo Küren in the 2d volume of the Groningen transactions of the society "pro excolendo jure patrio," 1778. The title chosen by Wiarda for the laws of Rüstring-the Asegabuch,though it has become perhaps the best known word of the whole Frisian vocabulary, is in reality not a genuine Frisian form, and never occurs in a Frisian document. The correct expression, according to Richthofen (Altfries. Wörterbuch, s.v. "Asebok"), would have been Asebok or Asekbok, the former equivalent to the book out of which the "a" or law is to be seen, and the latter to the book in which the law is to be sought. In West Frisia the native language holds much the same relation to Dutch as the Scottish language holds to English in Scotland: it has no legal or educational position, but it preserves among the peasantry a considerable degree of vitality, and is even cultivated in a literary way by a small patriotic school. The chief place among West-Frisian authors is due to Gysbert or Gilbert Japicx, rector at Bolsward, whose Friesche Rijmlerye was first published at Bolsward in 1668, and has since been frequently reprinted-at Leeuwarden in 1681; at Franeker, 1684; with a glossary by Epkema, 2 vols., Leeuwarden, 1824; and under the editorship of Dykstra, 1853. The volume contains secular, and especially humorous, poems, fifty of the Psalms of David and other religious pieces, a number of letters, one or two prose essays, and fragments of the "Customs" of Leeuwarden. A popular comedy called Waatze Gribbert's Brilloft, or Gribbert's Bridal, dates from the beginning of the 18th century. The first edition appeared in 1812, at Leeuwarden, and the second in 1820, and there have been several since. Among the writers who have published in West Frisian during the 19th century, it is sufficient to mention Salverda Posthumus, J. H. Halbertsma, Deketh, Windsma, Van der Veen, and Dykstra. A society for the study of Frisian was founded in 1829 at Franeker-"Friesch genootschap voor geschiedoudheid-en taalkunde," and since 1852 it has published a journal called De vrije Fries. Other Frisian periodicals are Forjit my net, "Forget me not;" the Swanne-blummen, a Leeuwarden annual; and De Byekoer. In North Frisian the most valuable literary monument is De gidtshals, i.e., the Geizhals, or Curmudgeon, a comedy, composed by J. P. Hunsen, in the Silt dialect. minor remains have been collected by De Vries, in his Nordfriesische Sprache nach der Moringer Mundart, Leyden, 1860; and by Johansen in Die Nordfriesische Sprache nach der Föhringer und Amrumer Mundart, Kiel, 1862.

The

There is one book which, more than any other, has attracted the attention of other than Frisian scholars. If the Ocra Linda book, as it is called, could be accepted as genuine, it would be, after Homer and Hesiod, the oldest document of European origin; but unfortunately it must be recognized as nothing more than a brilliant forgery. The first part of the manuscript, the book of the followers of Adela, professes to have been copied in 1256 from an ancient original, and gives an account of Neptune, Minerva, Minos, and other personages of classical antiquity, which would make them out to be of Frisian origin. According to J. Beckering Vinckers— who published De Onechtheid van het Oera Linda bók aangetoond uit de waartaal waarin het is geschreven, in 1875, and Wie heeft het Oera Linda Boek geschreven in 1877-the real author is Cornelis Over de Linden, a ship-carpenter in the Royal docks at Den Helder, who was born in 1811, and died in 1873, and who appears to have forged the document for the purpose of giving importance to his invectives against the church, and of shedding dignity on his family, which is traced by the book back for about two thousand years. Besides the works indicated above the following may be mentioned :-Ubbo Emmius, Rerum Frisicarum historia, Leyden, 1616; Pirius Winsemius, Chronique van Vriesland, Franeker, 1622; Wiarda, Ostfries. Geschichte, vols. 1-9, Aurich, 1791-1813, vol. 10, Bremen, 1817; Clement, Lebens- u. Leidensgeschichte Frieslands der Friesen, Kiel, 1845; Suur, Geschichte der Häuptlinge Ostfrieslands, Emden, 1846; Klopp, Gesch. Ostfrieslands, Weener, 1868-69; Friedländer, Ostfries. Urkundenbuch, Emden, 1874

FRITH or FRYTH, JOHN (cir. 1503-1533), an eminent pioneer of the Reformation in England, was born about the beginning of the 16th century at Westerham, Kent, where his father kept an inn. He was educated at Eton, and afterwards at King's College, Cambridge, where Gardiner, who subsequently became bishop of Winchester, was his tutor. Immediately after taking his B.A. degree, he transferred his residence (December 1525) to the newly founded college of St Frides wide or Cardinal College (now Christ Church), Oxford, whither, along with other young men of distinguished talent, he had been invited by Wolsey. At Oxford the sympathetic interest which he showed in the

Reformation movement in Germany soon caused him to be suspected as a heretic, and led to his imprisonment for some months. On being at the instance of Wolsey released from confinement, towards the close of 1526 or early in 1527, he fled to the Continent, where he appears to have resided chiefly at the newly founded Protestant university of Marburg, and to have been associated with Tyndal in many of the literary labours of the latter. At Marburg he became acquainted with several scholars and Reformers of note, and particularly with the famous Patrick Hamilton. Frith's first publication in fact was a translation of Hamilton's Places, made shortly after the martyrdom of their author; and soon afterwards the Revelation of Antichrist, a translation from the German, appeared, along with A Pistle to the Christen Reader, by "Richard Brightwall" (supposed to be Frith), and An Antithesis wherein are compared togeder Christes Actes and our Holye Father the Popes, dated "at Malborow in the lande of Hesse," 12th July 1529. His Disputacyon of Purgatorye, a treatise in three books, against Rastell, Sir T. More, and Fisher (bishop of Rochester) respectively, was published at the same place in 1531. In 1532, probably in July or August, he ventured back to England, apparently on some business to which he and Tyndal attached importance in connexion with the prior of Reading. Warrants for his arrest were almost immediately issued at the instance of Sir T. More, then lord chancellor. For some weeks Frith successfully evaded pursuit, but ultimately, in December, he fell into the hands of the authorities at Milton Shore in Essex, as he was on the point of making his escape to Flanders. The rigour of his imprisonment in the Tower was somewhat abated when Sir T. Audley succeeded to the chancellorship, and it was understood that both Cromwell and Cranmer were disposed to show great leniency. But the treacherous circulation of a manuscript "lytle treatise" on the sacraments, which Frith had written for the information of a friend, and without any view to publication, served further to excite the hostility of his enemies, and in a lent sermon preached against the sacramentaries" before the king, special reference was made to some at that time in the Tower, "so bold as to write in defence of that heresy," and who seemed to be put there "rather for safeguard than for punishment." On this instigation, Henry ordered that Frith should be examined; the result of a regular trial which followed was that he was found guilty of having denied, with regard to the doctrines of purgatory and of transubstantiation, that they were necessary articles of faith. On the 23d of June 1533 he was handed over to the secular arm, and at Smithfield on the 4th of July following he was burnt at the stake. During his captivity he had been more than usually busy with his pen, and his writings belonging to this period include, besides several letters of interest, a controversial work on the eucharist in reply to what Sir T. More had written against Frith's "lytle treatise"; also two tracts entitled respectively A Mirror or Glass to know thyself, and A Mirror or Looking-glass wherein you may behold the Sacrament of Baptism. Apart from his ability, which seems to have been regarded by all his contemporaries as extraordinary, his acquirements, his piety, his early and tragic death, Frith is an interesting and so far important figure in English ecclesiastical history as having been the first to maintain and defend that doctrine regarding the sacrament of Christ's body and blood which ultimately came to be incorporated in the English communion office. Twentythree years after Frith's death as a martyr to the doctrine of that office, that "Christ's natural body and blood are in Heaven, not here," Cranmer, who had been one of his judges, went to the stake for the same belief. Within three years more, it had become the publicly professed faith of the entire English nation.

See the Acts and Monuments of Foxe; the collected edition of the Works of Tyndal, Frith, and Barnes, by Foxe (1573); The Works of the English Reformers, edited by Russell, vol. iii.; British Reformers, vol. viii.; Fathers of the English Church, vol. i.; Anderson's Annals of the English Bible, vol. iii.

FRITZLAR, a town formerly of Electoral Hesse and now of Prussia, at the head of a circle in the district of Cassel, about 16 miles S.S.W. of Cassel, on the left bank of the Eder, a left-hand sub-tributary of the Weser. It is an old. fashioned place still surrounded with watchtowers, and it possesses a large number of churches, au Ursuline nunnery, and an old Franciscan monastery, now partly used as a Protestant church and partly as a poorhouse. Its inhabitants, who according to the census of 1875 numbered 2965, are mainly engaged in agriculture, but also manufacture considerable quantities of earthenware. As early as 732 Boniface, the apostle of Germany, established the church of St Peter's and a small Benedictine monastery at Frideslar, "the quiet home" "abode of peace. or Before long the school connected with the monastery became famous, and among its earlier scholars it numbered Sturm, abbot of Fulda, and Megingoz, bishop of Würzburg. When Boniface found himself unable to continue the supervision of the society himself, he entrusted the office to Wigbert of Glastonbury, who thus became the first abbot of Fritzlar. In 774 the little settlement was taken and burnt by the Saxons; but it evidently soon recovered from the blow. For a short time after 786 it was the seat of the bishopric of Buraburg, or Bürberge, which had been founded by Boniface in 741. At the diet of Fritzlar in 919 Henry I. was elected by the Franks and Saxons. In the beginning of the 13th century the village received municipal rights; in 1232 it was captured and burned by the landgrave, Conrad of Thuringia, and his allies; in 1631 it was taken by storm by William of Hesse; in 1760 it was successfully defended by General Luckner against the French; and in 1761 it was occupied by the French and unsuccessfully bombarded by the allies. As a principality Fritzlar continued subject to the archbishopric of Mainz till 1802, when it was incorporated with Hesse. From 1807 to 1814 it belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia; and in 1866 it passed with Hesse to Prussia.

FRIULI (in Italian, Friuli; in French, Frioul; in German, Friaul; and in the local dialect, Furlanei), a district at the head of the Adriatic, at present divided between Italy and Austria, the Italian portion being included in the province of Udine, and the Austrian comprising the countship of Görtz and Gradiska and the so-called Idrian district. In the north and east it is occupied by portions of the Julian and Carnian Alps, while the south is an alluvial plain richly watered by the Isonzo, the Tagliamento, and many lesser streams which, although of small volume during the dry season, come down in enormous floods after rain or thaw. The inhabitants known as Furlanians are probably in the main Latinized Celts, largely mingled with Italians on the one hand and Slovenians on the other. They speak a language much more akin to Latin than even Italian; details about which will be found in Pirona's Attenenze della lingua friulana date per chiosa ad una iscrizione del 1103, Udine, 1859, and Vocabulario friulino, Venice, 1869.

Friuli derives its name from the Roman town of Forum Julii, or Forojulium, which is said by Paulus Diaconus to have been founded by Julius Cæsar. In the 2d century B.C. the district was subjugated by the Romans, and became part of Gallia Transpadana. During the Roman period, besides Forum Julii, its principal towns were Concordia, Aquileia, Vedinium, and Næria. On the conquest of the country by the Lombards it was made one of their thirty-six duchies, the capital being Forum Julii or, as they called it, Civitas Austriæ. It is needless to repeat the list of dukes of the Lombard line, from Gisulf to

testing of which the queen manifested a strong personal interest. This took up much time, and led to considerable dispute among the various parties interested. Meantime the faith of the queen and others remained strong in the productiveness of Meta Incognita, and it was resolved to send out a larger expedition than ever, with all necessaries for the establishment of a colony of 100 men. The queen herself contributed two ships of 400 and 200 tons, manned with 150 men, and carrying 120 pioneers. Besides these the fleet contained other 13 vessels of various sizes, carrying other 250 men, and the most elaborate and minute instructions were drawn up for the conduct of the expedition. Frobisher was again received by the queen at Greenwich, and her Majesty threw a fine chain of gold around his neck. On May 31 the expedition left Harwich, and sailing by the English Channel, reached Greenland on June 19. This time Frobisher and some of his men managed to land, "being the first known Christians that we have true notice of that ever set foot upon that ground." In the first days of July Frobisher Bay was reached, but stormy weather and dangerous ice drove the fleet southwards, and unwittingly Frobisher entered what was afterwards known as Hudson Strait, up which he sailed about 60 miles. When he found that he was sailing away from his destination, he, with apparent reluctance, turned back, and after many buffetings part of the fleet managed to come to anchor in Frobisher Bay. Some attempt was made at founding a settlement, and immense quantities of ore were shipped. But, as might be expected, there was much dissension and not a little discontent among so heterogeneous a company, and on the last day of August the fleet set out on its return to England, which was reached in the beginning of October. Thus ended what was little better than a fiasco, though Frobisher himself cannot be held to blame for the result; the scheme was altogether chimerical, and the "ore" seems to have been not worth smelting. Between 1578 and 1585 we hear little of Frobisher, though he seems to have been doing service at various places, and steadily advancing in the good opinion of those in power. In 1580 he obtained the reversion of the clerkship of the royal navy, of no immediate value. In 1585 he commanded in the "Primrose" in Sir F. Drake's expedition to the West Indies, in the large booty brought home from which he no doubt had a good share. For the next year or two he was employed in various responsible services against the designs of Spain, and in 1588 he did such excellent work in the 66 Triumph" against the Spanish Armada that he was rewarded with the honour of knighthood. He continued to cruise about in the Channel until 1589, when he was sent in command of a small fleet to the coast of Spain. In 1591 he visited his native Altofts, and there married a daughter of Lord Wentworth. He had prospered during recent years and was able to become a landed proprieter in Yorkshire and Notts. But he found little leisure for a country life, and was soon on the seas again watching and cutting off the richly laden ships of Spain. In November 1594 he took part in the siege of Crozan, near Brest, and received a wound from which he died at Plymouth on November 22. His body was taken to London and buried at St Giles's, Cripplegate. Frobisher was brave and skilful as a naval leader, and had the enthusiasm of the true explorer, but was characterized by much of the coarseness, and probably some of the unscrupulousness, of his time, and appears to have been somewhat rough in his bearing, and too strict a disciplinarian to be much loved. He justly takes rank among England's great naval heroes.

See Hakluyt's Voyages; the Hakluyt Society's Three Voyages of Frobisher; C. F. Hall's Life with the Esquimaux; Campbell's Lives of the Admirals; Rev. F. Jones's Life of Frobisher, and authorities mentioned therein. (J. S. K.)

FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1782-1852), philosopher, philanthropist, and educational reformer, was born at Oberweissbach, a village of the Thuringian Forest, on the 21st April 1782. He completed his seventieth year, and died at Marienthal, near Bad-Liebenstein, on the 21st June 1852. Like Comenius, with whom he had much in common, he was neglected in his youth, and the remembrance of his own early sufferings made him in after life the more eager in promoting the happiness of children. His mother he lost in his infancy, and his father, the pastor of Oberweissbach and the surrounding district, attended to his parish but not to his family. Friedrich soon had a stepmother, and neglect was succeeded by stepmotherly attention; but a maternal uncle took pity on him, and gave him a home for some years at Stadt-Ilm. Here he went to the village school, but like many thoughtful boys he passed for a dunce. Throughout life he was always seeking for hidden connexions and an underlying unity in all things. Nothing of the kind was to be perceived in the piecemeal studies of the school, and Froebel's mind, busy as it was for itself, would not work for the masters. His half-brother was therefore thought more worthy of a university education, and Friedrich was apprenticed for two years to a forester (1797-1799). Left to himself in the Thuringian Forest, Froebel now began to study nature, and without scientific instruction he obtained a profound insight into the uniformity and essential unity of nature's laws. Years afterwards the celebrated Jahn (the "Father Jahn" of the German gymnasts) told a Berlin student of a queer fellow he had met, who made out all sorts of wonderful things from stones and cobwebs. This queer fellow was Froebel; and the habit of making out general truths from the observation of nature, especially from plants and trees, dated from the solitary rambles in the Forest. No training could have been better suited to strengthen his inborn tendency to mysticism; and when he left the Forest at the early age of seventeen, he seems to have been possessed by the main ideas which influenced him all his life. The conception which in him dominated all others was the unity of nature; and he longed to study natural sciences that he might find in them various applications of nature's universal laws. With great difficulty he got leave to join his elder brother at the university of Jena, and there for a year he went from lecture-room to lecture-room hoping to grasp that counexion of the sciences which had for him far more attraction than any particular science in itself. But Froebel's allowance of money was very small, and his skill in the management of money was never great, so his university career ended in an imprisonment of nine weeks for a debt of thirty shillings. He then returned home with very poor prospects, but much more intent on what he calls the course of "self-completion" (Vervollkommnung meines selbst) than on 'getting on" in a worldly point of view. He was soon sent to learn farming, but was recalled in consequence of the failing health of his father. In 1802 the father died, and Froebel, now twenty years old, had to shift for himself. It was some time before he found his true vocation, and for the next three and a half years we find him at work now in one part of Germany now in another, sometimes land-surveying, sometimes acting as accountant, sometimes as private secretary; but in all this his "outer life was far removed from his inner life," and in spite of his outward circumstances he became more and more conscious that a great task lay before him for the good of humanity. The nature of the task, however, was not clear to him, and it seemed determined by accident. While studying architecture in Frankfort-on-the-Main, he became acquainted with the director of a model school who had caught some of the enthusiasm of Pestalozzi. This friend saw that Froebel's true field was education, and he persuaded him to give up architecture and take a post in the