in the state of health from those which occur in disease. Let us now quote examples of each kind.

A general quantitive mode of action or affection is desire: each faculty being active, desires; hence, there are as many sorts of desire as fundamental faculties. The sensations of pleasure and pain are two sorts of general qualitive affections; they are effects, and happen, the former if any faculty be satisfied, the latter if its desire be not complied with. There are consequently as many kinds of pleasure and of pain as individual faculties.

The mode of being affected, called sentiment, is common to several affective faculties. That known under the name of memory, belongs to the intellectual faculties. Fury is common to combativeness and destructiveness. Simple affections take place in individual faculties. Anger, in my opinion, is a special affection of combativeness or destructiveness; fear, of circumspection; compassion, of benevolence; and repentance or remorse, of conscientiousness. Compound affections, on the contrary, depend on the combined activity of several faculties; jealousy, for instance, whose essence is egotism, is modified according to the peculiar faculties which desire, as physical love, friendship, love of approbation. Envy is another compound affection: it is jealousy without benevolence; it increases by the want of the superior feelings. An envious person covets for himself alone; he would possess all enjoyments, to the entire exclusion of others; while a jealous man desires to enjoy and is especially careful not to lose possession of the pleasure he enjoys.

The affections common to man and animals, and those proper to man, depend on the respective faculties. Anger, fear, jealousy, envy, appear in man and animals, as the faculties to which these affections belong inhere in both; while adoration, repentance, admiration, and shame, pertain, like the faculties from which they arise, to man alone.

Let us now remark that the fundamental powers and their qualitive affections may be more or less active or strong. The different degrees of activity are called velleity, desire, ardent desire,

passion; of the agreeable affections, pleasure, joy, and ecstasy; and of the disagreeable affections, pain, grief, and misery.

The nervous irritability, which is styled sentimentality in friendship, irascibility in courage, sensibility in benevolence, indicates only a higher degree of excitability or activity of the fundamental powers, and irregularity of application.

The affections may, further, be sudden and transitory, or slow and durable. Finally, the difference of the affections in the healthy and diseased state is easily understood. The complete absence of a faculty may be called imbecility, if it never existed, and fatuity, if it have been destroyed by disease. Fury, melancholy, despair, and irresistibility of any inclination, are diseased affections. But this subject is treated of at greater length in my work on Insanity, and I shall not dwell longer on it here.

Physicians, as well as moralists, must study the doctrine of the affections, on account of their influence on the vital functions and on man's actions in society. The same may be said in regard to the following article on

XII. Passions.

This word passion is commonly confounded with affection. What I have stated upon the affections, however, being known, the signification which I attach to the term passion will be easily understood; I use it to indicate only the highest degree of activity of any faculty. Passions, therefore, are not fundamental powers, but quantitive modes of action, and effects; there are, consequently, as many sorts of passions as of faculties.

Physicians, idealogists, and moralists, incessantly complain of the influence of the passions, since they ruin health and often occasion insanity, disorder judgment, cloud reason, and are causes of many errors and criminal actions.

Passions being the highest degree of activity of every faculty, we easily conceive why great results, whether good or bad, follow from them; why they advance the arts and sciences, and why they

may be excessively dangerous. This depends on the nature of the faculties which act with the utmost degree of energy. The low-> er feelings, however, let me remark, are commonly the most active; and in speaking of passions, we are apt to think of them. Still, the superior sentiments and the reflecting powers also act with passion in some, that is, they act with the greatest possible energy. Two feelings, selfishness and the love of glory, have been considered by Helvetius as the greatest, or principal passions, and the cause of all our actions. There is no doubt that these two feelings are very active in the majority of individuals, and excite and employ the other faculties to procure their satisfaction. But certain it is, also, that they cannot produce talents. There are ambitious people eager for distinction, who labor hard, and who notwithstanding all, never excel in any one particular.

As there reigns a natural harmony among the fundamental powers, those faculties which are too energetic, or which act with passion, must obviously disturb this balance or order. A youth in love, and a fanatic in religion, sacrifice the rest to their passion, and do harm. Yet in complaining of the passions, we do not stigmatize the fundamental powers themselves, but only their too great energy. This remark applies to the religious and moral feelings, as well as to the most brutal propensities. Selfishness, though it undermines morality, is still necessary to self-preservation. The love of approbation, though the main cause of political slavery, has a useful destination in private life. And religion, though the source of incalculable misery, procures the greatest consolation to humanity.

I shall make one observation more upon passions: the factitious passions, spoken of in books, do not exist. The primitive powers, on which they depend, are innate; their applications alone may be called factitious. Love of approbation is inherent in human nature; its satisfaction by external marks, titles, &c. is artificial.

I conclude with repeating that the various conceptions of philosophers, of idealogists as well as of moralists exist in nature,

but they are defective and need rectification, that is, the fundamental powers of the mind and their modes of acting must be specified, and their existence demonstrated by observation. This great task was reserved to Phrenology, by which alone philosophy will become applicable to man in his social relations.

SECTION II.

THE following new classification of the fundamental phenomena of the mind is the result of all physiological inquiries, contained in my work entitled Phrenology, and constitutes a summary of its philosophy.

ORDER I.

Affective faculties or feelings.

The essential nature of the affective faculties is to feel emotions. I shall indicate their nature, the aim of their existence, the disorders to which they dispose, and the consequences of their inactivity.

GENUS I.-Feelings common to man and animals.

Hunger and thirst are desires felt and known by means of the brain, and there is a special organ in which these impressions inhere.

(Alimentiveness.)

Aim: The preservation of the individual.

Disorders: Gluttony-Drunkenness.

Its inactivity is accompanied by want of appetite.

DESTRUCTIVENESS.

Aim: Destruction, and the violent death of animals, for the sake of living on their flesh.

Disorders: Murder, cruelty.

Its inactivity prevents destruction.

PHYSICAL LOVE-(Amativeness.)

Aim: The propagation of the species.

Disorders: Fornication, adultery, incest, and other illegitimate modes of satisfaction.

Its inactivity predisposes to passive continency.

LOVE OF OFFSPRING-(Philoprogenitiveness.) Aim: The preservation of the offspring.

Disorders: Too active; it spoils children, or causes their loss to be felt as an insupportable calamity.

Its inactivity disposes to neglect, or to abandon the progeny.

INHABITIVENESS.

Aim: Animals have peculiar instincts to dwell in determinate localities. Nature destined all places to be inhabited.

Disorder: Nostalgia.

Aim

Attachment to all around us. It appears variously modified, and produces friendship, marriage, society, habit, and general attachment.

Disorders: Inconsolable grief for the loss of a friend.
Its inactivity predisposes to carelessness about others.

Aim Intrepidity and defence.

Disorders: Quarrelsomeness, disputation, attack, anger.
Its inactivity predisposes to cowardice, timidity, and fear.