wrapped round the body, and falling so as gracefully to cover one leg, while part of the other is exposed. To this is added, by those who can afford it, a jacket with half-sleeves, and fitting tight to the shape. The hands and feet are adorned with rings and other ornaments, and sometimes a jewel is worn in the nose. With kindly dispositions, the Hindoos have little moral honesty; and they hold the crime of perjury as venial. With great ingenuity, they are extremely indolent. Their wants are few, and they care for nothing beyond supplying them. One of their maxims is, that "it is more happy to be seated than to walk; it is more happy to sleep than to awake; but the happiest state of all is death." This illustrates one phase of their national character, as the following does another:-" From poverty a man cometh to shame. Alas! the want of riches is the foundation of every misfortune. It is better to dwell in a forest haunted by lions and tigers, than to live amongst relations after the loss of wealth." Yet, though they esteem wealth highly, they will make few exertions to acquire it. They consider marriage as a religious duty of the highest order, and deem, that when a man marries, he "enters on the second state of existence, and takes his place in society." They regard it as a misfortune to be without male issue, as only males can perform the obsequies to the manes of their ancestors. Females are held in less estimation. Not unfrequently female infants were, in former days, murdered, to save the expense of supporting them; and it is to be feared that the practice is not yet quite extinguished among the Hindoo hill tribes. As they grow up, there is not much inducement to cause the Hindoo women to wish for long life. Their situation is both dependent and degrading; they have no choice in their destiny; their father disposes of them as he pleases till they reach the age for marrying, and for three years after, if they are not taken off his hands by a husband. After marriage, the man is literally woman's lord and master; and, at his death, till within the last few years, one of his wives was sacrificed to his manes. The Hindoo practice as to women, may be thus summed up. "By a girl, or by a young woman, or by a woman advanced in years, nothing must be done, even in her own dwelling-place, according to her mere pleaIn childhood, a female must be dependent on her father; in youth, on her sure. husband; her lord being dead, on her sons: a woman must never seek independence." A wife must not even eat in the presence of her husband, who can break the marriage tie, and turn the unfortunate female out of his house, almost at his pleasure; for so numerous are the pretences under which the man is permitted to sever the nuptial tie, that he has no difficulty in finding one for his purpose, whenever he wishes. On the other hand, whilst he chooses to afford house and home to the wife, nothing-no ill-treatment -can enable her to separate herself from him; and she is taught, under all and any circumstances, to revere her husband as a superior being. With the man, though as we have stated, marriage is regarded as a religious duty, there seldom is any love or regard for the woman he marries. "The object," it is said, "for which a Hindoo marries, is not to gain a companion to aid him in enduring the evils of life," or to share its joys and pleasures; "but a slave, to bear children, and be subservient to his rule." Men are seldom unmarried at twenty-five, nor girls at fifteen years of age: the latter are frequently married at from seven to nine. The marriages are contracted with many ceremonies; and the gods are besought to be propitious to the newly-united pair. There are also many ceremonies connected with childbirth and infancy; .and others are observed at funerals. They are, however, dying away under the progress of civilisation; and soon will only afford matter for history.-The Hindoos, it may be added, are fond of amusements. Sometimes poets recite to them tales and histories; at others, dancing-girls display their attitudes and activity before them (the Hindoo is forbid, by his religion, to dance himself); then wrestlers, jugglers, and snake charmers, do their best to entertain those by whom they are paid; and there is chess, cock and quail fighting, with athletic sports. Their athletæ, jugglers, and wrestlers, are very expert. There are two classes of languages spoken in India-those derived from the Sanscrit, and which are spoken in the northern and central provinces, are included in one; and those which are not so intimately connected with that language, in the other. There are more than thirty different languages spoken in the peninsula; the Hindoo or Hindee, Bengalee, Punjaubee, Mahratta, Guzerattee, Cutchee, Boondela, Brig, Bhakkur, Ooriga, and Auxmere, being included in the first class; the Tetoogoo, the Tamul, Canarese, Malayala, and Cingalese, in the second. The Sanscrit is not now spoken; but it is studied by the Brahmins, and other educated classes, who hold it in great veneration; all their sacred books being written in it. The Bengalee language is one in general use; but that most extensively prevalent, and which the British government make the medium of communication with the natives, using it in their official documents and in courts of justice, is the Oordoo or Hindostanee. It is a compound of Hindee, the primitive language of the Hindoos, with Persian and Arabic, the language of their Mohammedan conquerors. This language is now used from Madras to Bombay, and from the Ganges to Cape Cómorin. As we shall hereafter show, the British territory in India was originally acquired by a company of merchants, who obtained their first charter in 1600, and in whose hands the government and administration of their acquisitions was vested. The nucleus of our now vast Indian empire, was a small spot scarcely five miles square; in 1653, their government was transferred to Madras; a settlement at Hooghly was the origin of the second (the Bengal) presidency; and in 1687, Bombay was formed into a third.-In 1702, a new charter was granted to the "merchant adventurers," under the title of "The United Company of Merchants of England, trading to the East Indies." The management of the affairs of this company was placed in the hands of proprietors of a certain amount of stock, and directors chosen by them. The business was arranged to be carried on in various departments; the three presidencies were each placed under a president assisted by a council; each being independent of the other, but all three under the control of the higher authorities in England. In 1773, the British legislature thought it right that the home government of the nation should have something to do with these distant possessions; and in that year an act was passed, placing the administration of the three presidencies in the hands of a governor-general, appointed in the first instance by the crown. Calcutta was, by this act, created the seat of government, and of a supreme court of judicature; the presidencies of Madras and Bombay being made subordinate to that of Bengal. The crown only nominated the first governorgeneral-the celebrated Warren Hastings. His successors were (subject to the approbation of the sovereign) appointed by the directors of the East India Company; in whose hands the ruling power really remained till 1784. In that year, after the rejection of a bill brought in by Mr. Fox, which would have placed all the patronage of India in the hands of the minister of the day, Mr. Pitt's "India bill" was passed; the object of which was, without disturbing the property or patronage of the company, to give the crown a share in the government of its territories. For this purpose, the Board of Control was created, consisting of six members of the privy council, chosen by the sovereign, in whose hands the political government was placed. The president of this board is always a member of the cabinet of the sovereign; and this minister has been appropriately described, "as a secretary of state for the affairs of India, governing by means of the court of directors, as its instrument in all matters of a political nature." By the bill, "a committee of secrecy," was instituted, consisting of three of the directors, chosen by themselves. This committee was placed in direct_communication with the Board of Control, and charged with the management of all political, financial, and military details connected with the government of India; and it was independent, in the execution of these functions, of the general court.— Although the company was deprived of its exclusive powers of trading with the East in 1833, and in 1853 the constitution of the board of directors was altered (the number being reduced to eighteen, twelve of whom are elected by the proprietors of £2,000 stock and upwards, and six nominated by the crown), the act of 1784 still forms the real constitution of India, and is the origin of all the present governing powers who direct the affairs of that rich, populous, and extensive empire. The appointment of the governor-general of India is now in the hands of the minister of the day; for though the assent of the court of directors is required, that is never refused to the nominee of the crown. They can, however, recall a governor-general, should they be displeased with him, without the sanction of the general government, and even against its wishes, as they did in the case of Lord Ellenborough, in April, 1844. It is not probable, however, now that the crown has nominees of its own in the court of directors, to the amount of one-third of its number, that such an occurrence will occur | classes-the covenanted and the uncoveagain. The power of the governor-general nanted. The former is the highest in rank: is very great, and was much greater. Till its members are trained in England, and are 1854, assisted by a superior council of five nominated by the court of directors. The members, he had the power of making laws uncovenanted members, appointed by the for the whole of British India, subject to the Indian government, are principally natives; approval of the home government. In 1853 but a considerable number of Europeans and an act of parliament was passed, regulating half-castes is mixed up with them. The the future government of India, by which a European members of this class are "either separate legislative council was created, upon adventurers picked up in India-men who, whom falls the duty of making laws, the having gone out in some other calling, have governor-general and the supreme council acquired some experience in the country, and being the executive, or administrative power. thus obtained government employ-or the By this council, says Lord Dalhousie, "the sons of commissioned officers, who cannot duties of legislation have been laboriously obtain employment in the company's regular and faithfully performed. The public has service. The native uncovenanted servants long since had access to its deliberations; are principally drawn from the class of indiand its debates and papers are printed and viduals or families attached to our service, published." By the act of 1853 a lieutenant- and who have made it their profession from governor of Bombay was appointed; and the their youth."* governor-general was relieved from the duties connected with the local government of that presidency. Madras has also a lieutenantgovernor, and each presidency has its separate executive council; but the power of the legislative council extends over all India. The head court of justice is the supreme court, created by the act of 1773, consisting of one chief and three puisne judges. Its seat was, and is, at Calcutta; and its civil and criminal jurisdiction extends over all British subjects, and over all persons in the company's employ. There are, also, courts of justice in the other presidencies, and tribunals alike for the administration of British and Hindoo laws, to the people of the two countries respectively. But there is a difference in the laws by which our territories are governed, according as they are comprised in the "regulation," or in the "nonregulation provinces." The former, to which all our old settlements belong, are governed by the laws enacted by the governor-general and his supreme council-the earliest of which is known as the "Cornwallis code." The latter, consisting of the countries recently added to the empire, were, prior to 1853, governed by instructions issued by the governor-general. They are so still, where those instructions have not been set aside by the legislative council. The affairs of the regulation provinces are administered by members of the civil service only; in the non-regulation provinces, military men, as well as civilians, may be employed in the executive departments. The members of the civil service are very numerous, and they are divided into two For the better administration of justice, the collection of the revenue, and other civil matters, the Indian empire is divided into about 160 judicial districts, which vary much in size; but comprise upon an average 4,000 square miles, and 700,000 inhabitants each; the land revenue being £120,000 per annum, more or less. "Each district has a magistrate and collector, who has under him a deputy and an assistant, both belonging to the covenanted service, and also two or three uncovenanted deputy magistrates or collectors, whom he may employ in almost any duties. In Madras and Bombay, as the districts are generally larger, there is a larger staff." There are ten or twelve revenue divisions in each district; and the number of superior and inferior civil employés in the company's service, including policemen, is from 130,000 to 150,000. Formerly, admission to the civil service was exclusively in the patronage of the court of directors, who confined the appointments almost entirely to their relations, friends, and dependents. But, since 1853, the service has been thrown open to all subjects of her majesty, the candidates having to undergo a previous examination to prove their competency to discharge the duties of the office to which they may be appointed. † The duties of many of these civil servants are connected with the collection of the revenues, the greatest proportion of which is derived from the land. The proprietorship of land in India is of three kinds :-1st, the Zemindaree tenure; 2nd, the Ryot*Campbell's Modern India. † See the article in Blackwood, already referred to. 66 has been found able to stand against them. In the ranks of this army are Indians of all tribes and castes. "The races who most stoutly opposed us (Rohillas, Rajpoots, Seiks, Mahrattas), now muster most numerously under our banners," and fight as bravely to defend the British flag, as they did when marching under their own. But the Indian army is not a mere engine of war. Rightly considered, it will be seen to be a powerful instrument for leavening with European ideas the mass of the people. A permanent body of above 300,000 men, exclusive of the host of camp followers, all of them with relatives and friends, many of them with families, cannot fail to spread widely the glimmering of new ideas they have acquired from contact with the Europeans; and although such influence may be but feeble, continued from year to year, from generation to generation, it must tell visibly, at last, upon the native community."+ waree system; and 3rd, the Putteedaree, | employed in India are natives of the British or village-community system. The first is isles; and they have been termed the "salt where a single individual, or several jointly, of the army." The remainder are sepoy's hold a large extent of ground, on condition or natives; and to them, their European of paying a certain rent or revenue to the comrades are "what Alexander's serried government. Under this system there are Macedonians were to his more numerous tenants of the zemindars, who cultivate the array of spirited but unsteady Asiatics." soil, paying a certain rent to the zemindar, The whole army is drilled and led by Briwhich is not an arbitrary amount, but is tish officers; and the sepoys can scarcely adjusted by what is called the "Pergunnah be considered, under such leaders, as second rate," or the rate usual in the district. These to any European troops: no native force tenants cannot, by the ancient law or custom of India, be displaced while they continue to pay the stipulated rent.-Under the Ryotwaree system the cultivator is the proprietor, and he pays his rent in the shape of a landtax to the government.-In the Putteedaree districts the owners of the land are also cultivators; but they let such portions as they do not require themselves, to "ryots" resident in the village, and also to non-resident "ryots;" and while the former are entitled to the "tenant-right" privilege above mentioned, the latter, having no "settlement" in the village, are tenants at will. Each cultivator in these communities "bears his share in the government assessment of the village district, which is collected by the Potail, or head of the community, with whom alone the government deals, the community being ultimately liable for the default of any of its members."* Of these three systems -the Zemindaree prevails in Bengal proper; the Ryotwaree, in Madras and Bombay; and the Putteedaree in the north-western proEach has its merits and defects; but it would appear that more land is brought under cultivation by the Zemindaree system than by the others. "Every traveller is struck with the thriving aspect of the Bengal districts, where this system prevails. The jungle has entirely disappeared; and a man may go for miles in any direction, east and north of Calcutta, and see plains succeeding to plains, where there is not one bigah of unproductive soil."+ The Putteedaree system is, however, the most profitable to the government; and it also gives less trouble in collecting, as the collector comes in contact with fewer individuals. A more genial, and a more extensive civilising influence, we may hope, than that the army exercises, will result from the labours of the clergy connected with the church establishment, and from missionary exertions. The missionaries "have a profound acquaintance with the people, and are the only class to whom the peasantry will speak openly;" and they already pervade a great part of the territory of British India. The church of England, in 1852, had 128 clergymen, including three bishops; and in 1853, according to a statement laid before parliament, there were then 258 missionary stations, with 983 preachers, 383 of whom were missionaries; 250 native The Indian army is much more numerous churches, with 15,129 members; and a than that of the entire British empire be- native Christian population of 94,145 souls. sides, consisting of about 350,000 fighting Since that period, "the ecclesiastical estabmen. The governor-general is the head of lishment has been largely increased, to the army, which is under a general com- meet the additional call for religious inmanding-in-chief, as is the army in Eng- struction which has been created by the land. Forty-four thousand of the troops formation of many new stations in the • Blackwood. † Ibid. + Blackwood. several provinces which have been added to | within eight districts in Hindostan. These the empire. The court has also given its establishments were so successful, that, in sanction to the occasional employment of 1853, "the government of India earnestly other clergymen, not being in the service recommended, that the system of vernacular of the honourable company, where chap- education, which had proved so effectual, lains on the establishment may not be avail- should be extended to the whole of the able."* Suitable places of worship are now north-western provinces."‡ Similar meaprovided for the servants and soldiers of the sures were also advised for the lower procompany, the government undertaking to vinces of Bengal and the Punjaub, as well erect a protestant place of worship, of the as for Bombay and Madras. Progress has simplest and plainest form, wherever it is been made in all; and great benefits are required. Provision is also made for those expected from the establishment of a presiwho belong to the Roman catholic church, dency college at Calcutta, which is now prewhose claim to obtain from the government paring, and where all classes of the comfitting places of worship, on the same terms munity will be instructed in the higher as their protestant brethren, has been re- branches of learning. In 1854, the court cognised. There are now Roman catholic of directors sent out to India, what Lord bishops in each presidency, to whom salaries Dalhousie calls "their great education desare paid, and by whom certain duties con- patch." In this document they recommend nected with the business of the government the establishment of vernacular schools in are performed. "Separate burial-grounds all the districts under the British governhave been ordered to be set apart for mem-ment; with the foundation of government bers of the Roman catholic church; and colleges of a higher grade, and a university, every care has been taken by the govern- in each of the three presidencies. It also ment to ensure that the clergy of that persuasion shall have no just cause to complain of want of due consideration, or of inequality of treatment."+ The number of Roman catholic priests in India, for whom provision was made in 1852, was forty-two. sanctions the bestowal of grants-in-aid on all educational establishments, subject to certain rules, and to government inspection. Immediate steps were taken in India to give effect to the recommendations in this despatch. A distinct department for the superintendence of education was constituted, to take the place of the branch of the supreme council, called "The Council of Education;" a director-general of public instruction, and inspectors, were appointed in each presidency, and in the Punjaub; and a committee is now (December, 1856) engaged in framing a scheme for the establishment of universities at the presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. Medical colleges have also been established; and schools for instruction in civil engineering, receive every encouragement. The progress of education-which ought to be intimately connected with that of religion and civilisation-was, till within the last twenty years, almost entirely the work of the established clergy and the missionaries. In 1813, it was directed, that £10,000 should be applied annually, "to the revival and improvement of literature, the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India." Little result, however, followed-the system of education pursued being wholly oriental; till, in 1835, Lord In the general education projects of the W. Bentinck issued a minute, ordering that Indian government, female education has the educational funds should be thenceforth not been neglected. When any disposi"employed in imparting to the native popu- tion is shown by the natives to establish lation a knowledge of English literature female schools, assistance is to be rendered and science, through the medium of the to them; and to remove the reluctance English language." But the effect pro- which the higher class of natives have duced was limited, because the English lan- always shown to permit the attendance of guage was confined chiefly to the few na- their daughters at schools, the late Mr. tives, comparatively, who were in the service Bethune, president of the council of educaof the government, and to a few of the tion, shortly before his death, founded a higher class. At length, the late Mr. school at Calcutta, for the especial instrucThomason obtained permission to establish tion of the female children of wealth and a government school in every Tehsildaree rank. Though his premature death, in • Lord Dalhousie. |