The simplest method of preparing liqueurs is by adding the requisite proportion of essential oil to spirit of known strength, and then mixing this with the necessary amount of clear syrup. In this way, indeed, the greater number of the commoner and cheaper kinds are manufactured. Thus for making (say) 20 gallons inferior quality of kümmel, there are added to 7 gallons of spirit of wineb of essential oil of caraway seed, 7 drachms of fennel-seed oil, and 15 drops of bitter almond oil. With this preparation is mixed a syrup containing 40 lb of refined sugar dissolved in about 12 gallons of water, and when fined with gelatine or with alum and soda solution the liqueur is ready for use. To prepare, on the other hand, 20 gallons of fine kümmel liqueur, there would be placed in a simple still, with 10 gallons of spirit and 8 of water, 4 lb of caraway seeds, Ib of fennel, and 2 oz. of Florentine iris root. This mixture after maceration is distilled, the first portion of the distillate being put aside on account of its rough aroma, after which about 8 gallons of fine kümmel spirit is obtainable. There still may be procured, by forcing the heat, from 3 to 4 gallons of inferior spirit. To the 8 gallons of fine spirit is added a syrup consisting of 60 lb of refined sugar dissolved in 10 gallons of water, the two compounds being thoroughly incorporated with heat in an open vessel. On cooling, the amount of water necessary to make up 20 gallons is added; the liqueur is fined with isinglass, and stored to mature and mellow. All varieties of liqueurs may be made or imitated by both these methods; but as a rule it is only the simple-flavoured and commoner varieties which are compounded by the addition of essential oils and alcoholic tinctures. Fine liqueurs are made by macerating aromatic bodies and subsequent distillation; bitters by maceration and straining. Of trade liqueurs the most highly esteemed in the United Kingdom are Chartreuse, Curaçoa, Maraschino, and Doppel-Kümmel or Allasch. Of all kinds the most famous is Chartreuse, so called from being made at the famous Carthusian monastery near Grenoble. Three qualities are made-green, yellow, and white, the green being the richest and most delicate in flavour. Chartreuse is said to be a most complex product, resulting from the maceration and distillation of balm leaves and tops as a principal ingredient, with orange peel, dried hyssop tops, peppermint, wormwood, angelica seed and root, cinnamon, mace, cloves, Tonquin beans, Calamus aromaticus, and cardamoms. Curaçoa, which is a simple liqueur, is chiefly made in Amsterdam from the dried,pcel of the Curaçoa orange. The peel is first softened by maceration in water; then three-fourths of the quantity in preparation is distilled with mixed spirit and water, and the remaining fourth is macerated in a proportion of this distillate for two or three days; the tincture is strained off and expressed and added to the original distilled Curaçoa spirit. The flavour of Curaçoa is improved by the addition of about one per cent. of Jamaica rum. The centre of the Maraschino trade is at Zara in Dalmatia. Genuine Maraschino is prepared from a variety of cherry-the Marasca-peculiar to the Dalmatian mountain regions. The juice of the cherry fermented and distilled yields the spirit, which is flavoured with the broken cherry kernels themselves. Imitations of Maraschino are easily prepared, -a praiseworthy liqueur resulting from raspberry juice, bitter almonds, and orangeflower water. In the preparation of Allasch-which is a rich Kümmel-bitter almonds, star-anise, angelica root, Florentine iris root, and orange peel are used in addition to caraway seeds. Goldwater and silver-water are liqueurs to which small quantities of powdered gold-leaf and silver-leaf have been added, on account of their lustre. They are now little used. To Gentian root is the fundamental "bitter" in most of the preparations known as Bitters. These compounds, prepared by maceration, are very various in their constitution, but the following is a fair typical sample of the composition of a kind largely used. prepare 20 gallons of bitters there are taken 6 lb of gentian, 5 lb each of cinnamon and caraway seeds, 1 lb of juniper berries, and Ib of cloves. These are macerated in 7 gallons of spirit, 60° over proof, strained and filtered, and to the product is added 10 lb of sugar dissolved in 13 gallons of water, and the resulting liquor is coloured with cochineal, The following list includes the names of the principal commercial liqueurs not already named :-Noyeau (white and pink), trappistine (yellow and green) (from the Abbey de la Grâce Dieu), bénédictine (from Fécamp), peppermint liqueur, French cherry brandy or kirsebaer (from Copenhagen), mandarine, parfait amour, crémie de vanille, crême de rose, thé, café, menthe, cacao, vanille, pomeranzen, ratafia (from Dantzic), anisette (from Amsterdam and Bordeaux), kirschenwasser (from Switzerland and the Black Forest). absinthe, and vermouth. (J. PA.) LIQUIDAMBAR, LIQUID AMBER, or Sweet Gum, is a product of Liquidambar styraciflua, L., order Hamamelidex, a deciduous tree of from 30 to 50 feet high and attaining 15 feet in circumference in Mexico, of which country it is a native, as well as of the greater portion of the United States. It bears palmately-lobed leaves, somewhat resembling those of the maple, but larger. The male and female inflorescences are on different branches of the same tree, the globular heads of fruit resembling those of the plane. This species is nearly allied to L. orientalis, Miller, a native of a very restricted portion of the south-west coast of Asia Minor, where it forms forests. It is from the bark of this latter tree that the storax of the ancients (Herod., iii. 107; Diosc., i. 79), the medicinal styrax of to-day, is prepared (Bentley and Trimen, Med. Plants, No. 107). The earliest record of the tree appears to be in a Spanish work by F. Hernandez, published in 1651, in which he describes it as a large tree producing a fragrant gum resembling liquid amber, whence the name (Nov. Plant., &c., p. 56). In Ray's Historia Plantarum (1686) it is called Styrax liquida. It was introduced into Europe in 1681 by Banister, the missionary collector sent out by Bishop Compton, who planted it in the palace gardens at | Fulham. The wood is very compact and fine-grained, the heartwood being reddish, and, when cut into planks, marked transversely with blackish belts. It is employed for veneering in New York. Being readily dyed black, it is sometimes used instead of ebony for picture frames, balusters, &c. ; but it is too liable to decay for out-docr work. The principal product of the tree, however, is the resinous gum which issues from between the bark and wood. It is sometimes called white balsam of Peru, or liquid storax, though it is said by Michaux (Les Végétaux résineux, ii. p. 337) to differ materially from the latter. It is considered to be styptic and to possess healing and balsamic properties, being stimulant and aromatic. Te possesses nearly the same properties as the balsam of Peru and of Tolu, for which it is often substituted, as well as for storax. Mixed with tobacco, the gum was used for smoking at the court of the Mexican emperors (Humb., iv. 10). It has been long used in France as a perfume for gloves, &c. It is mainly produced in Mexico, little being obtained from trees growing in higher latitudes of North America, or in England. For localities where it has been observed, see Pickering's Chron. Hist. of Plants, p. 741. LIQUORICE. The hard and semi-vitreous sticks of paste, black in colour and possessed of a sweet somewhat astringent taste, known as liquorice paste or black sugar, are the inspissated juice of the roots of a leguminous plant, Glycyrrhiza glabra, the radix glycyrrhize of the pharmacopoeia. The plant is cultivated throughout the warmer parts of Europe, especially on the Mediterranean shores, and its geographical limits travel eastward throughout Central Asia to China, where its cultivation is also prosecuted. In the United Kingdom it is grown in Surrey and in Yorkshire. The roots for use are obtained in lengths of 3 or 4 feet, and varying in diameter from 1 to 1 inch, soft, flexible, and fibrous, and internally of a bright yellow colour with a characteristic sweet pleasant taste. To this sweet taste of its root the plant owes its generic name Glycyrrhiza (the sweet root), of which liquorice is a corruption. According the root dried at 110° C. has the following composition :to the analysis of Sestini (Gaz. Chim. Ital., vol. viii. p. 131), resin, fat, and colouring matters, 3-220; glycyrrhizin, 6-378; starch, 57720; cellulose, 19-790; albuminoid substances. 6.373; ammonia (combined), 0.043; asparagine, 2416; ash, 4060. It is to the sugar-like body glycyrrhizin in combination with ammonia that the peculiar taste and properties of liquorice root are due. Glycyrrhizin in itself is a tasteless nearly insoluble substance having the composition of C6H2406; but in combination with ammonia, potash, or soda it develops its sweet taste. It is easily precipitated from its combination by the influence of mineral acids. Liquorice has been known and its virtues appreciated from the most remote periods, and the root is an article of some commercial importance on the Continent. Stick liquorice is made by crushing and grinding the roots to a pulp, which is hailed in water over an open fire, and the decoction separated from the solid residue of the root is evaporated in copper pans till a sufficient degree of concentration is attained, after which, on cooling, it is rolled into the form of sticks or other shapes for the market. The preparation of the juice is a widely extended industry along the Mediterranean coasts; but the quality best appreciated in the United Kingdom is made in Calabria, and sold under the names of Solazzi and Corigliano juice. The liquorice grown in Yorkshire is made into a confection called Pontefract cakes. Liquorice in various forms is a popular remedy for coughs; and it is largely used by children as a sweetmeat. It enters into the composition of many cough lozenges and other demulcent preparations; and in the form of aromatic syrups and elixirs it has a remarkable effect in masking the taste of nauseous medicines, a property peculiar to glycyrrhizin. A considerable quantity of liquorice is used in the preparation of tobacco for chewing. Commercial liquorice paste is frequently much adulterated, and often contains distinct traces of copper, apparently derived from the vessels in which the juice is inspissated. LIQUOR LAWS may be divided into the three great systems of free trade, restriction, and prohibition. The system of free trade may mean either that no special licence is required by law for carrying on a traffic in intoxicating liquors, or that such a licence is required, but that the licensing authority is bound to grant it in overy case in which certain conditions are complied with. Wherever the determination of these conditions involves an appeal to the discretion of the licensing authority, the system of free trade tends to pass into the system of restriction. For practical purposes it does not matter much whether the law says, "every man of good character is entitled to a licence for a properly constructed house in e suitable locality," or "the magistrate must consider the character of the applicant and of the premises, but is not bound to give reasons for his decision." But wherever the applicant can submit to a court capable of dealing with evidence the question of fact whether he has fulfilled certain conditions defined by law, the system of free trade may be said in theory to exist. Wherever, on the other hand, the law distinctly affirms an absolute discretion in the magistrate, or lays down a positive principle, such as the "normal number or the fixed proportion between public-houses and population, the system is properly dercribed as restriction, or monopoly. This system, again, in its extreme form, tends to pass into one of prohibition. Under one of the alternative plans permitted by the Swedish licensing law of 1855, generally known as the Gothenburg plan, the municipality begins by the partial, and advances to the total, prohibition of liquor traffic, except by servants of the municipality; and this plan is sometimes advocated merely as a step towards the suppression of all trade in liquor. In nearly all countries the nature of the trade carried on in public-houses has subjected them to a much more rigorous police supervision than ordinary trades. All trades, however, must be carried on under the conditions required by the public comfort and safety; and to give unlimited licence in such matters to publicans would be to violate social rights not inferior to freedom of industry and trade. Of recent years there has been a considerable increase in the amount of drunkenness in Europe generally. Thero are no means of determining the law of the increase by reliable statistics, but it seems probable that the increase is confined to the large towns and to the lowest classes. There has also been of late, both in the United Kingdom and on the Continent, a very earnest and animated discussion on the policy and results of the various systems of liquor law. It cannot be said that so far any decisive experience has been adduced on the subject. In fact the legislation of Europe is in a very uneasy and changeful state. Thus, prior to the federal constitution of 1874, the cantons of Switzerland were in the habit of directing the municipal authorities to observe a certain proportion between the number of licences and the population. The of free trade, and the federal council intimated to the new constitution, however, laid down the general principle various cantons. that it was no longer lawful to refuse a licence on the ground that there was no public need of it. In the previous year precisely the opposite change took place in Denmark. The licence system rested on the law of 29th December 1857, but this was modified by the law of 23d May 1873, which increased the conditions to be fulfilled by those applying for a licence, and conferred upon the communal authorities the power of fixing the maximum number of licences to be granted. Similarly, in France, the liquor law rests upon the decree of 1851, but public opinion is turning against the absolute discretion reposed in the administrative authority, and the law proposed by M. de Gasté and approved of by the chamber of deputies on 22d March 1878 will probably lead to a system of greater freedom. In the German empire the various states are still permitted by a law of the confederation, dated 21st June 1869, to restrict the issue of licences to what the public seem to require, but except in Würtemberg this permission seems not to have been used. In Austria the rapid growth of drunkenness in Galicia made necessary the severe police law of 19th July 1877, but in other parts of the empire the exceptionally lenient law of 20th December 1859 seems to be considered sufficient. In the midst of so many fluctuations of opinion, the practical questions of legislation must be decided on general principles and not by experimental evidence. Those who speak and write on the reform of the liquor laws are divided into two great classes-(1) the nephalists, who consider alcohol, in every form, whether in distilled or in fermented liquors, to be poison, and therefore wish the sale of it to be entirely suppressed; (2) those who see no objection to moderate drinking, especially of the less alcoholic beverages, or at least regard the idea of suppression as an impracticable chimæra. In the United Kingdom the nephalists are at present agitating for Sir Wilfrid Lawson's Permissive Bill, which has latterly taken the form of a local option resolution. This means that in each burgh or parish two-thirds of the ratepayers may decide that no licences shall be given, a vote to be taken on the subject every three years. On 17th March 1879 the select committee of the House of Lords on intemperance reported emphatically against the scheme of the Permissive Bill. The committee did not examine witnesses from the United States with respect to the experiments in prohibition which have been made there on a large scale; but it is generally admitted that the Maine Liquor Law has succeeded only in villages and rural districts; in towns it has failed. So also the Michigan Law, prohibiting the sale of liquor except for medicinal or mechanical purposes, was condemned after twenty years' experience; and in 1875 a licence tax was imposed on dealers in liquor. The result is the same under those celebrated "local option laws" which are in force in some of the United States. These laws proceed from the legislatures of the various States. They sometimes take the form of a general prohibition of the sale of intoxicants, subject to a vote of the inhabitants in each township or county, but more frequently they merely provide in general terms for the issue of licences in the usual way, unless the local constituency shall otherwise determine. Such laws are in force in Massachusetts, New Jersey (which had the Chatham Local Option Law of 1871), New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Vermont. But whether they are constitutional or not is a matter of serious controversy in the courts of the United States. On the one hand, it is said that such a law amounts to a delegation by the State of its legislativo power, -that it leaves the hands of the senate and general assembly in an unfinished state, commanding nothing, prohibiting nothing. On the other hand, it is said this is a police regulation, which is properly entrusted to county commissioners, or boards of select men for the protection of the health and morals of the localities over which they preside; and it is quite competent for a State to make a law delegating the power to determine some fact or state of things, upon which the law makes, or intends to make, its own action depend. In the case of the States already mentioned the constitutional character of the local option law has been upheld by decision, but in the cases of Delaware, Texas, Indiana, California (Wall's Case), Iowa, and Pennsylvania, it has been denied. The question has also been raised in the American courts whether in the case of intoxicants being imported from one State to another a local option law, which prohibits the sale of the imported goods, does not violato the freedom of commerce which is guaranteed to all the States by the American Constitution.1 Among those who are not nephalists a variety of schemes has been suggested. A small minority are in favour of free trade subject to certain conditions. An experiment of this kind was tried by the Liverpool magistrates in 1853. "The premises were to be of high rateable value; the excise duty was to be greatly increased; the licencee was invariably to reside on the premises; and a special police for the inspection of licensing houses was to be provided." These conditions being complied with, no licence was refused. This experiment was made the subject of inquiry by Mr Villier's select committee of 1854. That committee, which included Sir George Grey and Lord Sherbrooke (Mr Lowe), reported unanimously in its favour. A similar experiment was made in Liverpool during the years 1862-66 without evil results, and also since 1862 in the Prescot division of the county of Lancashire. On the Continent the only countries where free trade prevails are Belgium, Holland, Greece, Spain, and Roumania. In certain parts of Bavaria communes possess breweries, the produce of which they are by custom entitled to sell without any licence; and the Rhenish Palatinate has never been subject to the restrictions mentioned below which apply to the rest of the empire. In Belgium licences are unknown. The only tax which the publican pays is the "patent" which is paid by every trade. So strong is the general law in Belgium that in 1866, when the municipal authorities of Antwerp issued a regulation prohibiting the sale of alcoholic drinks in the streets, this was held to be illegal by the court of cassation. The Dutch law is the same as in Belgium. It must not be supposed, however, that the Dutch are satisfied with the present law. The Dutch "society for total abstinence from strong drink" is very active; and in 1880 the Government presented to the lower chamber a bill, introducing a licence and also the principle of the normal number, the proportion of licences to population varying according to the total population of towns. In Belgium the Association contre l'abus des boissons alcooliques is endeavouring to secure amendments of the law, chiefly of a fiscal and police character, but the introduction of the licence is not suggested. In Germany, with the ex1 See Cooley, On Constitutional Limitations, and On Taxation, p. 403; Dillon, On Municipal Corporations, i. p. 892; and the recent case of Boyd v. Bryant, 37 Amer. Rep. 6. In some States it has been attempted to prohibit indirectly by raising enormously the licence fee. The subject is frequently before the courts, and it is decided that where the licensing power is given for revenue purposes there is no limit to the discretion of the licensing authority, but where it is given for purposes of regulation the fee should not exceed the expense of issuing the licence and inspecting and regulating the licensed trade. ception of Würtemberg and those places where the licence is unknown, the liquor trade is practically free. The law of 1869 declares that a licence can be refused for two reasons only-if the police condemn the structure or situation of the premises, or if the applicant is likely to encourage drunkenness, gaming, reset of theft, or improper meetings. This system may be contrasted with those of Italy and Russia In Italy, under the law of 20th March 1865, a licence is obtained from the sub-prefect or autorita politica del circondario on the demand of the syndic (sindaco) of the commune and after consulting with the municipal giunta. In Russia, under the decree of 1861 and the communal law of 28th June 1870, the licence is got from the municipal or communal council, or, in certain cases, from the owners of land, especially church land. In both countrics the licensing authorities have unlimited discretion, which they have exercised so as to multiply public-houses,.enormously. Assuming. that sufficient guarantees can be got for the respectability of the applicant and the good sanitary condition of his premises, the system of free trade, or of unrestricted licensing on defined conditions, is the only one which can be defended on principle. It is impossible for the magistrates to exercise a just discretion in deciding what public-houses are required for a locality. The fact that an applicant has invested capital in the business and is ready to begin is the best evidence that there is a demand to be supplied. There is, however, no prospect of free trade being established in the United Kingdom. The select committee of 1879 reported against it. A larger number of licensing reformers support the scheme for introducing the "normal number" to the United King dom. This was embodied in the bills of Sir Robert This Another scheme, which has the advantage of appealing to modern experience in Europe, was contained in Sir Robert Anstruther's bills of 1872 and 1874 and Mr Chamberlain's bill of 1877. These were all modifications of the Gothenburg system, which Mr Carnegie, a Scotch brewer in Gothenburg, has done much to make known in the United Kingdom. In Sweden, prior to 1855, there was absolute free trade in liquor. The General Licensing Act, passed in that year, gave power to local authorities, subject to confirmation by the provincial governor, to fix annually the number of licences, and to sell them for three years on certain conditions. If a company, or "bolag," were formed for the purpose of taking all the licences, the local authority might contract with the company for three years. The Act did not apply to beer. The result of this Act has been twofold. In rural districts almost no licences have been issued. In towns, on the other hand, drinking has increased of late, and has led to the severe police laws of 18th September 1874 and 15th October 1875. In 1866 Gotherburg set the example of transferring the whole public-house traffic to a bolag, which undertakes to appropriate no profit XIV. 87 from the business, but to conduct its establishments in the interest of temperance and morality, and to pay over to the municipality the profits made beyond a fair interest on capital. This experiment has been a great financial success, and if developed will relieve the town from the greater part of its local taxation. The example has been followed by every town in Sweden having a population above 5000; and in 1877, after long discussion, it was adopted in Stockholm, the capital, where the number of life licences presented unusual difficulties. Mr Chamberlain proposed that the work done by the Swedish bolag should be attempted by town councils in the United Kingdom. For this purpose he asked power to acquire the freehold of all licensed premises and the interests of the licence holders. The business would then be carried on by the town council, the profits being carried to the credit of the education and poor rates. The powers of the licensing justices would cease on the adoption of the scheme by the town council. The select committee of 1879 recommended that legislative facilities should be given for the adoption of this scheme. It is doubtful, however, if the burden would be generally submitted to, except on the understanding that the local rates would be pro tanto diminished; and, were this realized, the tendency would be to support the municipality on the liquor trade by extending its operations. The great mass of opinion in the United Kingdom, however, seeks somo modification of the present licensing system. That system is extremely complicated. The wholesale licences are granted by the excise without a magistrate's certificate, but for nearly all retail licences such a certificate is required. Generally, the magistrates have absolute discretion as regards licences to sell on the premises, but in England a licence to sell off the premises can be refused only for one or more of the following reasons-no satisfactory evidence of good character, disorderly house, previous forfeiture of licence by misconduct, want of legal qualification. The English law is contained in the Wine and Beerhouse Act 1869, and the Licensing Act 1872 and 1874.1 The great features of the legislation of 1872 were (1) the introduction of a confirming authority (viz., the licensing committee in counties and the whole magistrates in burghs) for the purpose of restricting the issue of new licences; (2) the quali fication of annual value in public-houso premises for the purpose of raising the character of those engaged in the trade; (3) the new regulations for closing; (4) the new regulations of police penalties, especially with reference to the endorsement of convictions on the licence and the forfeiture of the licence. The Act of 1874 abolished the necessity of confirmation in the case of "off" licences, gave the magistrates absolute discretion as regards the endorsement of convictions, and removed from magistrates all discretion as regards closing hours. There are not many peculiarities in the licensing law of Ireland. Public-house licences are generally held by shopkeepers, and no qualification of value is required except in the case of beerhouses. Mr Meldon's Act of 1877 (37 & 38 Vict. c. 69) closed public-houses on Sunday. In Scotland prior to 1853 licences were regulated by the Home-Drummond Act (3 Geo. IV. c. 58), which authorized only one form of certificate for "common inns." In 1846 a select committee reported that the combination of the grocer trade with the sale of spirits to be consumed on the premises was productive of evil to the working classes. This led to the Forbes Mackenzie Act of 1853, which was ainended in 1862, upon the report of a royal commission in 1860 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 67; 25 & 26 Vict. c. 35). It created three licences (1) for hotels, (2) for public-houses, (3) grocers' licences. Under the hotel licence intoxicating liquors may be sold to lodgers and travellers. On Sundays the public-houses are closed, and on week days the sale is practically limited to the period between 8 A. M. and 11 P.M. Cameron's Act of 1876 (39 & 40 Vict. c. 26) makes the refusal of a certificate by the magistrate final, and in the case of a new licence requires the confirmation of a county licensing committee or in burghs of a joint committee of magistrates and justices. Information on this subject is to be found chiefly in the Reports of royal commissions and select committees. It has been much discussed at the meetings of the Social Science Association, and there is a large literature of pamphlets and magazine articles, to which, among many others, Lord Sherbrooke. Mr Chamberlain, and Mr Arthur Arnold have contributed. The reports of the various International congresses "pour l'étude des questions relatives à l'alcoolisme," may be studied with advantage. See also Metman's Etudes sur les Legislations Européennes relatives aux débits de boissons alcooliques, Paris, 1879. (W. C. S.) LISBON (Portuguese, Lisboa), the capital of the kingdom of Portugal, is situated in 38° 42′ N. lat. and 9° 5' W. long., on the northern bank of the Tagus (Tejo), at the spot where the river broadens to a width of 9 miles, some 8 or 9 miles from the point where it enters the Atlantic. Standing on a range of low hills, backed by the lofty granite range of Cintra, and extending along the margin of the wide Tagus, Lisbon wears a very noble aspect to those who approach it from the sea. In regard to beauty of position it may rightly claim to be the third of European cities, Constantinople and Naples alone ranking before it. The river affords secure anchorage for a very large number of vessels, and the bar at the mouth is easily crossed even in rough weather. Like London, Paris, and Vienna, Lisbon stands in a geological basin of Tertiary formation. The upper portion consists of loose sand and gravel destitute of organic remains, below which is a series of beds termed by Mr Daniel Sharpe the Almada beds, composed of yellow sand, calcareous sandstone, and blue clay, rich in marine remains. The greater part of Lisbon stands on those beds which belong to the older Miocene epoch, and are nearly of the same age as those of Bordeaux. Next comes a conglomerate without fossils. These Tertiary deposits, which cover altogether an area of more than 2000 square miles, are separated, near Lisbon, from rocks of the secondary epoch by a great sheet of basalt which covered the Secondary rocks before any of the Tertiary strata were in existence. The uppermost of the Secondary deposits is the Hippurite Limestone, which corresponds to a part of the Upper Chalk of northern Europe. The narrow valley of Alcantara, in the immediate neighbourhood of Lisbon, has been excavated in this deposit; and here there are extensive quarries, where abundance of its peculiar shells may be collected.3 Lisbon stretches along the margin of the river for 4 or 5 miles, and extends northward over the hills for nearly 3 miles, but much of it is scattered amongst gardens and fields. In the older parts the streets are very irregular, but that portion which was rebuilt after the great earthquake of 1755 consists of lofty houses arranged in long straight streets. Here are the four principal squares, the handsomest of which, the Praça do Commercio, is open on one side to the river, and on the other three is surrounded by the custom-house and Government offices, with a spacious arcade beneath. In the middle is a bronze equestrian statue of Joseph I., in whose reign the earthquake and restoration of the city took place. At the middle of the north side is a grand triumphal arch, under which is a street leading to another handsome square, the Rocio or Praca do Dom Pedro (built on the site of the Inquisition palace and prisons), where stands the theatre of D. Maria The houses are for the most part well built, and are divided into flats for the accommodation of several families. The streets had formerly a bad reputation in regard to cleanliness, but of late years great improvement has taken place in this respect, although no general system of drainage has yet been adopted. They are lighted with gas made from British coal. The public gardens, five in number, are small, but are much frequented in the evenings. city contains seven theatres and a bull ring. The hotels of Lisbon offer but indifferent accommodation to II. The 3 After careful investigation, Mr Sharpe discovered that the greatest force of the earthquake of 1755 was expended upon the area of the above-mentioned Almada blue clay, and that not one of the buildings standing upon it escaped destruction. Those upon the slopes of the hills immediately above the clay suffered very severely, and all on the Tertiary strata were more or less injured, whilst none of the buildings on the hippurite limestone or the basalt suffered any damage whatever, -the line at which the earthquake ceased to be destructive corresponding exactly with the boundary of the Tertiary beds. 1 strangers; the shops present little display, and are ill furnished with wares. The markets are tolerably well supplied with meat, fish, and country produce. A large quantity of excellent fruit is brought in for sale during the season. The king usually resides at the palace of Ajuda, situate on a hill above the suburb of Belem. It is in the Italian style, and was intended to be one of the largest palaces in Europe, but it has been left incomplete. It contains a large library, a collection of pictures, and a numismatic cabinet. There is another royal palace at Lisbon (that of the Necessidades), where former monarchs were wont to reside; and in the neighbourhood of the city are numerous others. Several of the nobility have good and spacious houses in the city, which are dignified with the name of palaces. The houses of the British residents are mostly to be found in the elevated district called Buenos Ayres. Two or three small forts, one on a rock at the mouth of the Tagus, afford a very inadequate defence against the attacks of a hostile fleet. In ascending the river the picturesque Tower of Belem, built about the end of the 15th century, is seen on the north bank close to the water's edge. On a rocky hill stands the citadel of St George, surrounded by the most ancient part of Lisbon, composed of narrow tortuous streets, still retaining its old Moorish name, Alfama. The chief naval and military arsenals of the kingdom are at Lisbon. Attached to the former are a naval school and a hydrographical office. Here also is a museum of colonial products. In various parts of the city are barracks for the accommodation of the FIG. 1.-Plan of Lisbon. troops and for the municipal guard. The churches are numerous, but are nearly all in the same tasteless Italian style; the interiors, overlaid by heavy ornament, contain pictures utterly devoid of merit. The cathedral is gloomy without being grand, but the oldest part behind the high altar may deserve inspection. The largest church in the city is St Vincent's, 222 feet by 82. The large adjacent convent is now the residence of the cardinal patriarch. In a modern chapel attached to the church the coffined corpses of the monarchs of the house of Braganza are deposited, and the public are admitted to see them on certain days in the year. Perhaps the most striking church in Lisbon itself is that of the Estrella, with a dome commanding an extensive view, and two towers, the whole design reminding the visitor of St Paul's, London. At St Roque is the famous chapel of St John the Baptist, designed by Vanvitelli, and made at Rome for King John V., who had been enriched by the discovery of the gold and diamond mines in Brazil. Before being sent to Portugal it was set up in St Peter's, and Benedict XIV. celebrated the first mass in it. It is composed of precious marbles with mosaics and ornaments in silver and bronze, and is said to have cost upwards of £120,000. By far the most interesting architectural object at Lisbon is, however, the unfinished Hieronymite church and monastery at Belem. The church was begun in 1500 near the spot where Vasco da Gama had embarked three years before on his famous voyage to India. The style is a curious mixture of Moorish Gothic and Renaissance, with beautiful details. The English college was founded in 1628 for the education of British Roman Catholics; and the Irish Dominicans have a church and convent originally established for the educa |