to be inconsistent with it. In the first place, the theory, if good for anything, must be universal. It must not be merely one of several ways, or one of two ways, of creating species; or, at all events, if it does not apply to genera (though where the line is to be drawn I cannot see), it must be the way which is followed in those cases of congenerous species to which we have been alluding. With them, at least, it must be the sole way, if it is a way at all; and, to say truth, Mr Darwin and Mr Wallace do not seem to shrink from this inference; for Mr Darwin says-" Each new variety or species, when formed, will generally take the place of and exterminate its less well-fitted parent. This I believe to be the origin of the classification and affinities of organic beings at all times." Assuming, then, the position to be, that this is the way in which species are created, or rather developed, if I can point to any instance where a congenerous species exists under circumstances where access to its allied species is morally impossible, I should say the theory must fall. In a paper on an allied subject, now in the press for next number of the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal," I notice several of such instances. The most striking, and the one which, to my mind, at once disposes of the whole matter, is the existence of species of the same genera of eyeless insects, existing in the vast subterranean isolated caves of Carniola, allied, and exceedingly closely allied, to similar species in the caves of Hungary-to similar but different species in the caves of the Pyrenees-to similar but different species in the caves of Auvergne-and, more than all, to similar but different species of the same genera in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. Each of these sets of caves has a different set of species, of the same genera, and all very closely allied. The physical condition of the place being the same, the product has been the same; but not by immigration, nor any means of distribution which we can imagine, can identical species-(for, remember, the theory implies that congenerous species are identical species, or, what is the same thing, their descendants)-be found in caves so widely separated; and it is not the common case of congenerous species found very wide apart, which yet may have traversed the intervening space, because these insects are found nowhere but in the caves, and not in them until you have penetrated far, far into the interior, usually about a couple of miles. Another instance may be drawn from our own coast. We have a small beetle which lives here between high and low water-mark (Æpus fulvescens), between the leaves of shale. A closely allied form, but quite distinct (Thalasobius testaceus) is found in like circumstances on the coast of Chili. Here, again, like physical condition, like product. Take another case—although, perhaps, scarcely so isolated as these two. Of late years, ants' nests have been found to contain a considerable number of species of beetles which live with the ants, are often excessively like them, and sometimes are unprovided with eyes. The same peculiarity prevails here-allied species, and nothing but allied species in ants' nests wherever they are. For instance, among the beetles so found is the curious genus Paussus. Seventy or eighty species of Pauss are now known, and all are inmates of ants' nests, and confined to them. Species have been found in these localities in Spain, in Natal, in Hong Kong, in India, in Australia, and so on. Here, again, like physical condition, like product. I might draw similar illustrations from the parasites in bees' nests and wasps' nests. Further, it were easy to draw abundance of

proof of the fact that congenerous species are at all events always found in similar physical conditions of life. Dr Gray allows this, although he applies the fact differently from me. He says" Whether or not susceptible of scientific explanation, it is certain that related species of phænogamous plants are commonly associated in the same regions, or are found in comparatively approximate (however large) areas of similar climate." But I must not dwell longer on this subject. It is a very suggestive one, and readily leads one away to meet or consider objections or difficulties which will occur to any one who thinks over it; and I would only beg any of you, who may think they see a flaw in my theory, not to take it for granted that I have not an answer for it. Perhaps, when Mr Darwin's book appears, I may examine the matter more in detail in another paper, either here or elsewhere:

Another very interesting topic, closely related to this, is also discussed by Dr Gray in this valuable paper. It is the inquiry into the distribution of the ancient flora of the northern half of the globe, as connected with its present distribution. Starting with the fact, which is now pretty generally admitted, that the present vegetation is not of recent creation, he sketches, in a clear and plausible manner, the probable geological changes which have taken place since the Tertiary Period, tracing the variations or oscillations which the climate, and consequently the ancient flora, would sustain. But for this I must refer you to the paper itself. I do not know whether his views of the antiquity of our present vegetation are accepted to their full extent by botanists in general, I rather think they wait for further information. He seems to rest them chiefly on the investigations of Mr Lesquereux, who conceives that he has identified in the tertiaries and subsequent deposits many of our present trees. For instance, in the tertiaries of Vancouver's Island, he identifies the Sequoia sempervirens-a tree now found ten or fifteen degrees further southand one which grows to as great a size as the Wellingtonia gigantea. But I must leave Dr Gray, and hurry on to a conclusion.

Crossing from Japan to North America, we have Capt. Palliser's British North American Exploring Expedition, to which, as already mentioned, our member (Dr Hector) is Geologist and Chief Naturalist. A French gentleman, M. Bourgeau, acts as Botanical collector to the expedition; and two letters, respectively of June and October 1858, from him to Sir W. Hooker, are published in last year's Linnean Society Proceedings. They are not without interest, but I do not find anything of particular novelty. The information, both as to the plants and country, quite corresponds with what we know of them from Jeffrey and other sources. A table of the temperature of the earth and of forest trees, made at Fort Saskatchewan, furnishes data which may be useful to the generaliser.

A vast number of new pines have been described, or rather, I should say, announced under names, during the last year or two. These are chiefly from Mexico; and although many may be new, I have no doubt that a still greater number will turn out to be mere varieties or synonyms. The Botanic Garden here is, I may observe, not only well supplied with the cones and leaves, &c. of the Californian and other pines, but also has an exceedingly good collection of fine, healthy growing specimens. These unfortunately, however, are confined to one or two small plots, which might, perhaps, hold two or three examples of the trees when they reach their full size, but of course are quite inadequate to con

tain anything like the crowd now packed in them. Space must be had for them; and I do hope that Parliament may, in another year, be concussed into doing something for this most urgent object. But it is obvious that this will only be done through force of concussion and external pressure. Members must remember that the Botanic Garden is not a matter alien to them. Next to the University, they may be said to be the parties who have the greatest interest in its prosperity; and I would remind them, that so long as they choose to continue members of this Society, it is their duty to exert themselves on behalf of the Garden. I scarcely think that the members of societies now-a-days sufficiently consider the obligation which they undertake by joining them. They get themselves proposed and are admitted, pay their fees, and think that that is all their part of the contract-in consideration of which they have the privileges of members, come to our meetings when they see any paper in the billet which takes their fancy, and in all other respects conduct themselves as if they were no more members of the Society than of one at the Antipodes. But I should wish much to get them to look at it in another light. I should like them to think that they are part of the Society, and that the Society is part of them; and that it is not optional with them, but a real matter of duty to push on, support, and sustain it by every means in their power. I am not so wild as to dream of introducing the laws of the Oineromathic-poor Edward Forbes's early chivalrous association--in which everybody was to help everybody, under every circumstances, in purse and person. But it is not utopian to expect members, who feel themselves qualified for it, to take the trouble of giving us occasional papers-and I know several in this Society who might well do it, and do not ;-it is not utopian to expect one and all of us to exert ourselves to add to the stores of the Museum-although here, I must admit that this duty is more conscientiously performed; and lastly, and what specially led me to speak upon the subject, it is not too much to expect us, one and all, to clamour loudly and perseveringly, at every fitting season, and at every fitting place, for a more liberal support from Government to the Garden and its Officers.

Gentlemen, I think I have completed the hasty survey of the globe which I undertook, for all that South America has contributed during the last year need not detain us; and in concluding, as the term of my Presidency expires this evening, I have only now to thank you most cordially, in the first place, for having honoured me so highly as to place me in this chair; and in the next place, for the uniform kindness and forbearance which you have extended to me in my imperfect efforts worthily to fill it.

The following Communications were read:

1. Letter from Dr JOHN KIRK, Physician and Naturalist to the Livingstone Expedition, relative to the Country near Lake Shirwa, in Africa. (With a Plate.)

Senna, May 11, 1859. On board Steam Launch.

MY DEAR DR BALFOUR.- From our former letters you may have heard of the difficulty we found in ascending the Zambezi. With the present steam-boat it is quite impossible; the water is confined when

low to a deep, narrow canal, as it passes the hills of Kauvabassa; it is then quite out of the question to attempt passing. Dr Livingstone and I have examined that region on foot, and found many rapids--one of great size, it seemed to be a fall of 30 feet at an angle of 30°. The only hope is at flood; then these rapids, being from 80 to 100 feet under the surface, become smooth; and what seems necessary is a boat with power sufficient to make headway in this deep part, for to pass among the shallows which then exist at the sides would be dangerous from cross currents and rocks. This part of the river is 30 miles in length. Dr L. has applied for another boat; if the Government grant it, we shall try what we can do during the next floods in December or March.*

This delay has been in so far fortunate, at least it has not been lost time. Some of the party are at Tette, working out the coal district. Dr. Livingstone and I have had a wandering time; we have been down to the sea; up Meramballa, a mountain near the Zambezi, in sight of Senna, of 4000 feet high, the summit and slopes a regular botanic garden, where during the ascent you pass, from the grassy river-banks in the first place, through forests with orchids, gingers, balsams, and ferns. As you ascend the vegetation changes; you meet with trees not so tall as those of the base, and Dr Livingstone observed that many were identical with those of the high lands of Louda in the west. We had here the Leucodendron and the common Pteris. On the top there is a great plateau, divided by ridges and peaks, with a varying elevation from 3000 to 4000 feet; it is well watered by springs, and the crops of maize are excellent. Lime trees grow wild in the woods. Here is a fine, cool, healthy climate, within sight of the town of Senna; yet it is doubtful whether the Portugese ever were there-it is a region quite unknown to them. The river Shire flows on the west side of this mountain; it is a fine river for navigation; we could get no information regarding it. The Manganja people, who dwell near the mouth, have been a complete barrier to the Portuguese, and likewise to those of the interior. The only means of transport by water is in canoes; and the Shire being deep and flowing quickly, with very few eddies of slack currents, it would be difficult to manage the unwieldy canoes of the country; and those in them, would be as completely in the power of the people as if they travelled overland. The case is otherwise with us; we pass with ease; no care is needed; there are few shoals, and the natives themselves soon see that their poisoned arrows would be nothing against guns when we are afloat out of range. land daily to cut wood, and find that if one has no fear of them, there is no danger. They have never molested us, as we are the stronger; their poisoned arrows would be very little against rifles and revolvers. They have learned to distinguish between the Portuguese and English, and do not attempt the impositions they practise on the native hunters, such as taking a tooth and half the flesh of the elephants killed.

We

The Shire flows for 100 miles nearly north, in a plain of about 20 miles wide; there is a district near the middle which is marshy and cut up into islands, overrun by elephants; but the greater part is fine land for growth of cotton, sugar-cane, and rice. All these are now cultivated, and we can see at once the capabilities of the country. The cotton is of two sorts; one very fine in the good staple. The sugar-cane is chewed, but the people do not know the art of extracting the sugar. *We are happy to say that the Admiralty have granted a ve sel.

Two crops of maize are obtained each year; and probably many other crops might be grown during the cold season, such as wheat. On either side are mountains; those of the north-east reaching 4000 feet. This would be a healthy position for Europeans. These high lands also yield erops of cotton, sugar-cane, and cereals, with various kinds of pulse, but more care is needed for their growth than in the valley. It seems a great thing to have this healthy region so near the coast, with a rich plain of enormous extent, and a navigable river leading, without obstruction, to the sea.

Dr Livingstone and I started again in April, to explore the region to the north, and following the Shire overland, for navigation was checked by a rapid, where it curves from among the mountains. We took with us a strong party of Makololos, so as to be independent of the natives, who will not dare anything unless against the weak. They are great

across.

We had some

cowards, unlike the Landeens and Kaffirs of the south. idea of preparing the way for reaching the great lake, whence it seems probable the Shire takes its rise. For many days we wandered over a most rugged country. The people gave us no assistance, so that we often made a long road, which, had we known the general features of the country, would have been easy. However, it is only what all first explorers must expect. At length, however, we reached a plain which the river crossed to the east. For the 30 or 40 miles we had passed, the river flows between hills over a rocky bed, and is a series of cataracts, one after another. On reaching the plain, we struck across for a mountain opposite, called Dzomba, whence we hoped to have a view which might guide us in our future course. Here we met with native slave traders who, when they thought us Portuguese, looked on us with jealousy and without much fear; when they knew better, they seemed to expect that we should attack them and take off all the slaves. The English name is known far beyond where Europeans have ever penetrated. It took us long to cross this plain, although only 15 miles We were led astray by the people under the influence of these traders. We had in the end to take our own way, as we had done in the former part, and cross the hills opposite. Here we found a high plateau, with a totally new vegetation; a most interesting region, which I hope to explore more fully. The flora of Meramballa was but a slight indication of what we find here. To the east we had another plain, bounded on the other side by blue hills, and in it we could just distinguish a sheet of water. Our course now was for it. The information we received led us to believe that it was of great extent. On the 18th of April we got to the shore, and had before us one of the finest sights I ever beheld; an enormous expanse of water narrowing to the south, but reaching 30 miles in that direction; about 25 or 30 miles across to the north, we had a water horizon like the sea, and even from considerable heights nothing more was to be seen. There are in this lake many islands, with high mountains on them, and inhabited. The people tell us, that in a storm there are great waves, and we could see them breaking against one part of the shore. The water of this lake is bitter to drink; several rivers flow into it, but none out. The Shire never crosses the hills which we had passed, but keeps on the other plain, and is said to come from another lake, which they call the great lake or the Lake of the Stars, "Ninyessi." NEW SERIES.-VOL. XI. NO. I.-JAN. 1860.

S