had discovered, before the age of twenty-four, the theory of universal gravitation, a principle which solves the chief pheno mena of nature, and connects and regulates the whole machine of the universe. His theory of light and colours is the foundation of the science of optics, and his Principia the basis and elements of all philosophy. Locke, his contemporary, investigated the operations of the human mind, examined the soul by attending to its operations, and has been à priori the founder of the sensualist school of intellectual philosophy."-Historical Analysis of Christian Civilization; by PROFESSOR DE VERICOUR, Queen's College, Cork.

7. Logic is applied to history in observing the remarkable occurrences with regard to individuals or nations:

"It is, however, a remarkable fact, that some of the greatest men, both in ancient and modern times, have been extremely unhappy in their domestic concerns. The rebellion of Absalom against his father David, and its tragical issue; the murder of Sennacherib, in the temple of the god Nisroch, by the hands of his own sons, Adrammelech and Sharezar; the severities which Augustus Cæsar was obliged to use against his only child, his daughter Julia, on account of her scandalous life; and the havoc which Herod the Great made in his own family, by the execution of his beautiful and beloved wife Mariamne, his two most promising sons, and others of his near relatives, may be adduced as instances, among a great number of others which occur in ancient history, that the highest degrees of human power, exaltation, and splendour, do not always exempt their possessors from domestic infelicity, no more than from personal misfortunes and the ordinary sufferings of mortality. To these instances, and many others in ancient history, may be added a number of a similar nature, in more modern times; among which the tragical catastrophe of Don Carlos, son of Philip the Second of Spain; and that of the Czarowitz, son of the immortal Peter the Great, of Russia, stands as conspicuous and distinguished proofs of the uncertain and fluctuating nature of all human felicity."Bigland's Letters on History.

8. Logic is applied to history in deducing general principles in the science of politics :

"Much has been said by many writers against the pernicious effects of extensive empire, but many arguments may also be adduced in its favour. The union of a numerous mass of people in one political system is one of the surest preventives of war, as the division of countries into a greater number of independent states is a never-failing source of predatory hostilities, of blood

shed, rapine, and anarchy. Wherever a country is thus divided, such a multiplicity of jarring interests arise, and so many objects of ambition present themselves, as cannot fail of producing continual scenes of contention, originating in the ambition, the avarice, and the jarring interests of the rulers or the subjects, which involve the people in all sorts of calamities. Instances without number might be adduced, but a glance at the state of England during the time of the Heptarchy will suffice to exemplify the propriety of this observation. In an extensive monarchy there is only one great political interest, and the objects of ambition, however splendid and attractive, are fewer, and consequently within the reach of a smaller number of persons; in such a state all tends to one central point, instead of deviating to different centres. The vast collective mass of the people is united in one political system, and in one general interest, and the different provinces which compose the empire enjoy the advantages of a free and uninterrupted commerce; a circumstance of incalculable benefit, both to individuals and to the whole community. Supposing even an extensive monarchy to be despotic, and the monarch himself a sanguinary and unfeeling tyrant, yet, by reason of the extent of his dominions, only a few individuals, who most of them voluntarily bring themselves into contact with him, feel the effects of his cruelty and despotism. Those who, from motives of ambition or interest, approach his person, and serve him as the instruments of his tyranny, are the persons who principally feel the heavy hand of the tyrant. The great mass of the people feel its pressure in a much lighter degree. Distance of situation, and the great multitude of subjects, cause individuals to escape his notice. The reverse is the case in petty states, where the eye of the tyrant is always upon the individuals of his contracted dominions; and a tyrant at the distance of a thousand miles, is infinitely preferable to a tyrant at home, at our very doors. The history of mankind affords a multiplicity of proofs, that extensive monarchies are more conducive to the tranquillity of the world, and the general interests of humanity, than petty states."-Ibid.

9. Logic is applied to history in inculcating the truths and lessons of morality and religion :—

Besides, it is the history of the Bible which hath conveyed down to us the knowledge of those miracles and divine wonders which have been wrought by the prophets, the immediate messengers of heaven, to prove that they were sent of God. It is in this history we read of those Prophecies of things to come, together with the accomplishment of them, which stand in a beautiful connexion from the beginning of the world to the days of the Messiah. All of them join to confirm our faith in the several

revelations of religion which God has made to the sons of men; and all concur to establish the last and noblest scheme of religion, that is, Christianity. Thus the very history of Scripture has a powerful and rational influence to establish our belief of the Gospel, and to make us Christians upon solid and reasonable grounds.

"I add yet further, that in the historical part of Scripture we read the holy Laws of God, exemplified in the life and practice of good men in several ages of the world: and when we see the rules of religion copied out in the words and actions of our fellowcreatures, it renders the performance of them more practicable and more delightful to us. While the word of command stands in the law to require our obedience, the actual obedience of our fathers to those commands recorded in the history, invites our imitation, and makes the work more easy.

"We find not only the precepts but the sanctions of the law of God exemplified in the narratives of Scripture. How often do we read the promises of God fulfilled in the rewards of the righteous, and his threatenings executed against wilful transgressors! these things set the government of God before our eyes in a stronger light; they show us that his words of promise and threatening are not empty sounds; and make it appear, with sensible conviction, that he will certainly reward, and that he will as certainly punish. The many wonderful instances of a Divine Providence which concerns itself in the affairs of men, and which are recorded in the word of God, have a natural tendency to awaken our fear of so great and glorious a Being, and to encourage our hope and trust in him. In a word, the perfections of God, whereby he made and governs the world, are set before our eyes by the Scripture History in such divine colours, as give us a more awful and more amiable idea of God himself, than any words of description could have done, without such an historical account of his works of nature, grace, and providence."— Dr. Walts's Scripture History.

There are many other ways in which logic is applied to history. Such, for example, as in the investigation of the causes of "great facts"-the cause of the spread of Christianity-cause of the rise of Mahometanism of the Reformation-of the French Revolution, &c. &c. Also, in tracing effects,—as the effects of the feudal system-of the crusades

of the discovery of America, &c. &c. I mentioned to you, at the commencement of my book, that although the mere acquiring of information is not reasoning, yet every fact in history may, in some way or other, become the subject of a reasoning process.

SECTION III.

THE APPLICATION OF THE ART OF REASONING TO POLITICAL ECONOMY.

"POLITICAL Economy" is the name which is given to the Science of Wealth. Adam Smith does not use this name, but simply calls his work "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations." A political economist is one who studies or explains the doctrines of political economy. He is not merely one who believes Malthus's theory of the population, Huskisson's system of free trade, Ricardo's theory of rent, and Sir Robert Peel's opinions on the currency. These doctrines do not constitute the science; they are some of the disputed doctrines of the science. He who rejects them is, in our view, as much a political economist as he who maintains them.

I am not going to teach you political economy, but merely to give you a few hints as to the use of the art of reasoning in acquiring a knowledge of some of its principles :

I.-The art of reasoning then will teach you that you should understand clearly the nature of the science you intend to learn.

The science of political economy is intimately connected with the daily occurrences of life, and in this respect differs materially from that of chemistry, astronomy, or any of the natural sciences; the mistakes we may fall into in the latter sciences can have little sensible effect upon our conduct, whilst our ignorance of the former may lead us into serious practical errors. There is scarcely any history or any account of voyages or travels that does not abound with facts and opinions, the bearings of which cannot be understood without some previous acquaintance with the principles of political economy: besides, should the author himself be deficient in this knowledge, you will be continually liable to adopt his errors from inability to detect them."

"This science is essentially founded upon history, not the history of sovereigns, of wars, and of intrigues; but the history of the arts, of trade, of discoveries, and of civilization. We see some countries, like America, increase rapidly in wealth and pro

sperity, whilst others, like Egypt and Syria, are impoverished, depopulated, and falling to decay: when the causes which produce these various effects are well understood, some judgment may be formed of the measures which governments have adopted to contribute to the welfare of their people; whether such or such a branch of commerce should be encouraged in preference to others; whether it be proper to prohibit this or that kind of merchandise; whether any peculiar encouragement should be given to agriculture; whether it be right to establish by law the price of provisions or the price of labour, or whether they should be left without control; and so on. You see, therefore, that political economy consists of two parts,-theory and practice; the science and the art. The science comprehends a knowledge of the facts which we have enumerated: the art relates more particularly to legislation, and consists in doing whatever is requisite to contribute to the increase of national wealth, and avoiding whatever would be prejudicial to it."-Mrs. Marcet's Conversations on Political Economy.

II. The art of reasoning will teach you to be systematic and methodical in your studies.

Dr. Watts observes, in his "Improvement of the Mind," that "the best way to learn any science is to begin with a regular system, or a short and plain scheme of that science, well drawn up into a narrow compass, omitting the deeper and more abstruse parts of it ;" and he remarks in another place, that if a man in his younger days has arranged all his sentiments in any particular order, it will be much more natural and easy for him to continue to dispose all his further acquirements in the same order. And he illustrates this by the arrangement of books in a library: when we have accustomed ourselves to any particular arrangement, we can find a book more readily than if they were again to be arranged in even a better order.

Recent writers on political economy have usually divided the science into four parts,-Production, Distribution, Interchange, and Consumption. Under the first division, they have considered labour and capital; under the second, rent, profit, and wages; under the third, commerce and money; and under the fourth, the consumption of Government and that of individuals. It cannot be denied that there is a neatness in this division, and doubtless all the topics of the science may be discussed under one or other