are not the same as the elementary sounds which they represent. Thus the name of the letter m does not enter as an element into the word man when pronounced, but another sound which it represents does. It is true that some of the name sounds of the vowel letters are the same as the elementary sounds which they represent. Thus, the name sound of the letter a is the same as the sound which it represents in the word fate; but it is not the same as that which it represents in all, father, fat, as may be shown by isolating the sound. The VOWELS, that is, the vowel letters, are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. A, o, u, and w represent the broad vowel sounds; e, i, and y the small vowel sounds.

The CONSONANTS, that is, the consonant letters, are p b, f v, td, kg, sz; h; l, m, n, r; j, c, q, x, and sometimes w and y. Here we have, first, the representatives of the Cognate sounds; then the Aspirate h; thirdly, the Liquids l, m, n, r; finally, the Double letter j, with the Redundant signs, c, q, and x.

The Consonants, likewise, have been classified according to the organs by which they are produced, whether chiefly by the lips, the teeth, or the palate. B, p, f, v, and m have been called Labials. D, t, s, z, j, g, when equivalent to j, and c when equivalent to s, Dentals. K, g, r, l, q, and when equivalent to k, Palatals. They are also called Gutturals.

S and z are also called Sibilants, from the hissing noise attending their production. M and n are also called Nasals, from their relation to the nose. Landr are sometimes called Linguals. T, d, and n are sometimes called Cerebrals.

A DIPHTHONG is two vowel letters joined in one syllable, as ea in eagle, oi in voice.

1. A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both of the vowels. are sounded, as oi in voice.

2. An improper diphthong, or digraph, is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded, as ea in beat.

A TRIPHTHONG, or trigraph, is three vowel letters joined in one syllable, as eau in beau, uoy in buoy.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER I.

1. What is the meaning and derivation of the term orthography?

2. What are orthographical forms?

3. Which, in the order of nature and time, comes first, orthoepy or orthography?

4. What is the end aimed at by orthography in the early stages of a language?

5. In the later stages of a language, what is the influence of orthography?

6. What are the chief conditions of a perfect system of literal notation?

7. What is the end aimed at by a literal notation?

8. What is said of the alphabetic system of the Sanscrit language?

9. What is the number of letters in the English alphabet?

10. What is the number of sounds in the table of elementary and compound sounds?

11. Does the English alphabet meet the conditions of a perfect system of literal notation mentioned in Section CLXXIX ?

12. What are letters, and what is the derivation of the term?

13. Into what classes are letters divided?

14. Are the names of letters, and the elementary sounds which they represent, the same?

15. Illustrate the difference between the names of the letters and the sounds. 16. Name and classify the vowel letters.

17. Name and classify the consonant letters.

18. What is a diphthong? a proper diphthong? an improper diphthong? a triphthong?

19. Which letters are the sibilants? which the nasals? which the linguals? which the cerebrals?

CHAPTER IL

THE RELATIONS OF THE LETTERS TO THE ELEMENTARY

SOUNDS.

VOWEL LETTERS.

SECTION CLXXXIII.

A, NORMALLY, or regularly, represents four tabular elementary sounds, namely, the first, second, third, and fourth. See table of elementary sounds, Section CXVIII.

1. The ancient or Italian sound, as in father, which is slightly modified in certain combinations, as in pass, dance.

2. The short sound, as in mat. This is sometimes described as the short sound of the Italian a.

3. The long or slender sound, as in fate, which is modified when in combination with the liquid r, as in care. This use of a is peculiar to the English.

4. The broad sound, as in fall, which is shortened in what.

In the words any, many, and says, a abnormally, or irregularly, represents the short sound usually represented by e. The short sound of a in late is represented by e, as in let. In unaccented syllables the sounds represented by a are often not distinguishable from the sounds represented by some other vowel letters. A final, unaccented, has the sound of a in father, as in the word America. The deficiency of the English alphabet is seen in the fact, that one letter represents at least four different sounds. There should be as many letters as sounds. See Section CLXXIX.

As in other languages, so in the English, the sound of a interchanges with o. In old English, the forms hond and strond occur instead of hand and strand. In Anglo-Saxon, brad, stan, correspond to the English forms broad, stone. The a in salt was pronounced like a in fat before it was pronounced, as at present, like o in not. The change from the sound of a to that of o takes place more especially before the letter 1, as wall, call. When the liquid is followed by / another consonant, the 7 is generally sunk in the pronunciation, as falcon, salmon, pronounced faucon, sammon.

The inconvenience of having so many sounds represented by a single letter is partly removed by the use of marks in many dic

tionaries. Each mark serves the purpose of an original letter. It cannot, however, be expected that these marks will generally be adopted in printing.

, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long e, as in Cæsar, and sometimes to short e, as in cætera.

Ai, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long a, as in sail, and sometimes to short e, as in said, and to i in aisle. These vowels are sometimes separated, as in mosaic.

Ao, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long a in gaol, and to short o in extraordinary. In aorta these vowels do not coalesce.

Au, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to broad a, as in cause, and sometimes to the Italian a, as in aunt, and to long a in gauge. Aw, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to broad a, as in maw. Ay, a proper diphthong in the word ay, is elsewhere an improper diphthong, and is equivalent to long a, as in day.

SECTION CLXXXIV.

E represents normally two elementary sounds, the fifth and the sixth. 1. The long sound, as in mete. 2. The short sound, as

in met.

It sometimes is equivalent to long a, as in there; and to short i, as in England; and to u in but.

Before 7, in the final unaccented syllable, it is sometimes mute, as in shekel, pronounced shek'l, and sometimes sounded, as in chapel. Before n, in the final unaccented syllable, it is sometimes mute, as in heaven, pronounced heav'n, and sometimes sounded, as in kitchen. In unaccented syllables, e has sometimes the sound of u, as in suffer, and sometimes the sound of e is suppressed, as in words like cherries, married, pronounced cherris, marrid.

The long sound of e is strictly the long sound of i in pit, and the short sound of e is strictly the short sound of a in late.

The e mute, in words like cone, robe, serves to denote the length of the preceding vowel. For this purpose it is retained, but it was not for this purpose that it was invented. Originally it expressed a sound; and it is only by a change of language that it has come, as it were by accident, to be an orthographical expedient. E is always mute at the end of words, except monosyllables which have no other vowels, as the, me; and proper names, as Phebe. It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as in live, give.

E mute, at the end of words, serves to give c the sound of s, which would otherwise have the sound of k, as in dance; and also to give g the sound of j, as in singe, which would otherwise be sing; and also to preserve to s its own sound, which would otherwise have that of as in dispense; and also to give to th a sonant sound instead of a surd, as in breathe. It is mute when 7 is coupled with a consonant at the end of words, as in fickle.

2,

The use of the letter e with its long sound is peculiar to the

English. In other languages it has the sound of a in fate, or that of e ferme.

Ea, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long e, as in tea; to short e, as in head; to long a, as in break; to the Italian a, as in heart.

Ee, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long e, as in eel.

Ei, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long a, as in veil; to long e, as in deceit; to long i, as in height; and to short e, as in heifer.

Eo, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long e, as in people; to short e, as in leopard; to long o in yeoman; and to short o in George.

Eu and ew have the diphthongal sound of u, as in feud, dew. In sew, shew, and strew, ew sounds like long o.

Ey is equivalent to long a, as in prey; to long e in key; and to long i in ley. Eye is equivalent to i i.

Eau has the sound of long o, as in beau; in beauty, and its compounds, it has the sound of long u.

SECTION CLXXXV.

1. The diphthongal, someSee Section CXVIII. 2. The

I represents normally two sounds. times called the long sound, as in fine. seventh elementary sound, called the short sound, as in pit. The latter is strictly the short sound of e.

Before r it is equivalent to short u, as in first. It sometimes is equivalent to long e, as in machine.

I, unaccented, readily blends with the succeeding vowel, as ia in physician; io in concession.

In other languages, long i is pronounced like ee.

Te, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long i, as in die; to long e, as in grief; and to short e, as in friend. In terminations like twentieth, in fiery, in Orient, the vowels should be separated in pronunciation; also in variegate.

Ieu and iew, triphthongs, have the sound of long u, as in lieu,

review.

SECTION CLXXXVI.

O represents normally two elementary sounds,-namely, the eighth and the ninth. 1. The long, as in note. 2. The short, as in not. It sometimes is equivalent to oo, as in prove; and to u short, love; and to broad a, as in lord; and to short i in women; and to the u in full, as in wolf.

Oa, an improper diphthong, is sometimes equivalent to long o, as in coal, or to broad a, as in broad.

Oe, an improper diphthong, is equivalent sometimes to long 0, as in foe, or to oo, as in canoe, or to long e, as in fœtus.

Oi is a proper diphthong. See Section CXVIII.

Ou is a proper diphthong. See Section CXVIII. It is also equiva

lent to short u, as in enough; to oo, as in soup; to long o, as in though; to short o, as in cough; to broad a, as in ought; to u in bull, as in could; to long u, as in through.

The sound given to ou is peculiar to the English. In other languages the sound is represented by au or aw.

Ow is sounded like ou, and oy like oi.

SECTION CLXXXVII.

U represents normally three sounds: 1. The long or diphthongal, as in mule. 2. The tenth elementary sound, as in bull. 3. The twelfth elementary sound, as in but. This last sound of u is peculiar ⚫to the English.

It is also equivalent to short i in busy, and to short e in bury.

Ua, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to the Italian a, as in guard; to short a, as in guarantee; to long a, or wa, in persuade. Ue is equivalent to long u, as in blue; to short e, as in guest; is silent, as in league.

Ui, an improper diphthong, has the sound of longi, as in guide; of short i, as in conduit; of long u, as in juice.

Uy, an improper diphthong, is equivalent to long i, as in buy.

SECTION CLXXXVIII.

of oo, and W before h It takes its

W, from being partly a vowel and partly a consonant in its use, may be called a semi-vowel. It has nearly the sound represents the thirteenth elementary sound, as in wet. is pronounced as if it were after the h; as, what, hwat. written form from the union of two v's, this being the form of the Roman capital letter which we call V. With o and e it forms diphthongs, as in now, new. It has often the same sound as u, as in drew. It is sometimes silent, as in write, whole. W is often joined to o at the end of a syllable without affecting the sound, as in grow. In Welsh it is sometimes used in a syllable without another vowel, as ful-fool. In some languages it has the sound of v.

SECTION CLXXXIX.

Y, from being partly a vowel and partly a consonant, may be called a semi-vowel. It represents the fourteenth elementary sound, as in yet. It is equivalent to u, as in youth; to i, as in my and crystal; and to short u, as myrrh. It often has replaced the AngloSaxon g, as in year for gear. It originally grew out of the Greek,

a vowel.

CONSONANT LETTERS.

SECTION CXC.

B represents the twenty-second elementary sound, as in bag. The b in debtor, subtle, agrees with the b in lamb, dumb, thumb, in being mute. It differs, however, in another respect, that, while the words debtor, subtle, are of Classical, the words lamb, dumb, &c., are of