retraction of the accent in certain verbal derivatives has preserved the word from being lost; as, Offset, income, outcast, upstart, downfall, overfull, undershot, fore-named, by-gone. 7. A few other verbs, mostly obsolescent; as, Inbreed, infold, outbud, outbar, gainstand, gainsay.

The difference between these compounds and the use of a separate particle may be illustrated by comparing inhold with hold in, outrun with run out, uphold with hold up, overthrow with throw over, understand with stand under, forego with go before, backslide with slide back, withhold with hold with.

This subject of the disuse of Teutonic suffixes I propose to illustrate more fully by taking up the several Teutonic particles of place in their order, and following them down from the Gothic and AngloSaxon, the ancient languages whence the Teutonic portion of our own tongue is derived.

To; as, Gothic duginnan, to begin; durinnan, to run to; duvakan, to watch unto; Anglo-Saxon toberan, to bear to; tobrecan, to break in pieces; tocuman, to come to; tosprecan, to speak to. This prefix cannot be used in English before verbs, as it would be confounded with to, the sign of the infinitive. It remains only in toward (adjective or adverb), with accent retracted.

At, another form of the particle to; as, Gothic atbairan, to bring or to offer; atgaggan, to go to; atrinnan, to run to; Anglo-Saxon wetberan, to show; atspurnan, to spurn at; atsittan, to sit by. There is no compound word in English with this prefix. It must not be confounded with at in verbs of Latin origin; as, Attain, attempt, attend; or in words of French origin; as, Attach, attack.

Of, the opposite of to, and denoting from; as, Gothic afgaggan, to go out or depart; afletan, to put away; afstandan, to depart; AngloSaxon of beatan, to beat off; ofcuman, to come forth or proceed; ofdrifan, to drive off; ofsettan, to set off. The only compounds remaining in English are verbal derivatives with the accent drawn back (which retraction of the accent has preserved the word from being lost); as, Offset, offshoot, offspring, off scouring. With offset, compare set off.

From, a more modern form than of, but with the same force; as, Gothic fragiban, to forgive; fraletan, to dismiss; Anglo-Saxon fromcuman, to be rejected. No example remains in English except the adjective froward (for fromward), with the accent drawn back.

In; as, Gothic insaian, to sow in; insaiwan, to look on; AngloSaxon inbryan, to bring in; infaran, to go in; incuman, to come in. In English only in doubtful or obsolescent forms; as, Inbreathe, inbreed, inhold, infold; and in verbals with accent drawn back; as, Income, inborn, inbred. For the difference of meaning, compare inhold with hold in.

On, probably another form of the particle in; as, Gothic anagaggan, to come on; anadrigkan, to drink on; anaquiman, to come upon;

Anglo-Saxon onbitan, to taste of; onbrican, to break in; ongangan, to enter in. In English only in verbals with accent drawn back; as, Onset, onslaught.

Out; as, Gothic usbairan, to bring forth; usgaggan, to go out; usgiban, to render; Anglo-Saxon utdragan, to drag out; utgan, to go out; utlætan, to let out. In English only where the particle has a metaphorical or unusual sense; as, Outbid, outblush, outbreathe, outbuild, outburn, outdo, outrun; also outbar, outbud; and in some verbals with accent drawn back; as, Outbound, outborn, outcast. For the difference of meaning, compare outgo with go out; outstand, to stand beyond the proper time, with to stand out, to project.

Up; as, Gothic ufbrikan, to reject; ufgairdan, to gird up; AngloSaxon ирситап, to come up; upfaran, to go up. In English in some obsolescent verbs; as, Upbear, upblow, updraw, upheave; also, when the prefix has a metaphorical sense; as, Upbraid, uphold; and in verbals with accent drawn back; as, Upstart, uprising, upright. For the difference of meaning, compare uphold with hold up.

Down, in some verbs; as, Down-bear; and more verbals; as, Downcast, downfall, downlooked, downtrod.

Over; as, Gothic ufargaggan, to go over or transgress; ufarlagjan, to lay upon; ufarsteigan, to come up; Anglo-Saxon oferbrædan, to cover over; oferbringan, to bring over; ofercliman, to climb over; ofercuman, to overcome; oferdon, to overdo. In English only where the particle has a metaphorical or unusual sense; as, Overawe, overbear, overbend, overbid, overgo, overflow, overdo, oversee, overtake. Compare overturn with turn over, overthrow with throw over.

Under; as, Anglo-Saxon underberan, to support; underbrædan, to underspread; undercuman, to come under; underdon, to put under ; undergan, to undergo. In English where the particle has a metaphorical or unusual meaning; as, Underbear, underbid, underdo, undergo, undersell, undertake. Compare understand with stand under.

In

Fore; as, Gothic fauragaggan, to go before; fauraquiman, to go before; faurastandan, to stand by; Anglo-Saxon forebeon, to be before; forecuman, to come before; foregan, to go before. English only where the particle refers to time, or has some unusual signification; as, Forearm, forebode, forecast, foreknow, foresee, forethink, foretell, forego, forenamed.

After; as, Gothic afargaggan, to follow; Anglo-Saxon aftercwadhan, to speak after; afterridan, to ride after. In English only in verbals with accent drawn back; as, After-cost, after-crop, afterpiece.

Back; a later form for after or behind; as, Anglo-Saxon bæcberan, to take on the back. In English only in backbite, backslide, backwound.

By and be; as, Gothic bigitan, to find; biquiman, to come upon; birinnan, to run by; Anglo-Saxon becwedhan, to bequeath; beginnan, to begin; begyrdan, to begird. In English only where the import of

the prefix is not obvious; as, Behead, become; or where the accent is drawn back; as, By-gone, by-past.

For, in the sense of forth or away; as, Anglo-Saxon forsendan, to send forth or away; forgifan, to forgive; forswerian, to forswear. In English in forbid, forgive, forswear.

Gain, in the sense of against; as, Anglo-Saxon geonberan, to oppose. In English in gainsay; also, gaingive, gainstand, gainstrive. With; as Anglo-Saxon wiɣlædan, to lead away; wislecgan, to lay against; wisgan, to go against. In English only in withdraw, withhold, withstand.

SECTION CCCXCIII.-VIII. THE FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS.

1. COMPOSITION, or the formation of compound words, is a special mode of forming new words and developing new ideas.

2. Composition, considered externally, is the combination of two words expressing distinct ideas, so as to form one word expressing one idea. The word thus formed is called a compound. This definition is sufficient for the merely practical grammarian.

3. Composition, considered in its internal nature, is, like many other linguistical processes, a development of the species from the genus; that is, the name of the genus, as boat, by prefixing the specific difference, as steam (i. e., moved by steam), now denotes the species, as steam-boat. This is the more philosophical definition.

4. In reference to the mental process in composition just described, the compound consists of two parts, viz., the general, or that which denotes the genus; and the special, or that which denotes the specific difference. The latter, which is the leading member of the composition, usually precedes, and has the tone or accent.

which

5. The unity of the word consists in the tone or accent, binds together the two parts of the composition. The mere orthography is an uncertain criterion, being sometimes entirely arbitrary.

6. The unity of the idea consists in its referring to a specific thing well known as having a permanent existence.

7. Every composition is binary, or every compound consists properly of only two members, although these may themselves be compounded. Compare household-stuff, deputy-quarter-master-general, which must be analysed conformably to this principle. The most plausible exception is Latin suovitaurus (whence suovitaurilia), "a swine, sheep, and bull.”

8. Composition is an original process in language, distinct, on the one hand, from derivation, that is, the formation of words by internal change of vowel and by suffixes, and, on the other, from the mere syntactical combination of ideas.

9. Composition differs essentially from the formation of words by internal change of vowel and by suffixes, in this, that derivation gives us different forms of ideas; as, Drink (noun), drinker, drinking (noun), to drench, all forms or modifications of the radical idea to

drink; to set, to settle, sitter, setter, seat, sitting (noun), all from the radical idea to sit; while composition gives us species of idea; as, School-house, state-house, alms-house, all species under the general term house; door-key, chest-key, watch-key, species of keys.

10. As a mode of forming words, composition is later in its origin than derivation, and has arisen from the inadequacy of derivation to express the definite ideas which become necessary in language. Thus mere derivation would be insufficient to express the different kinds of keys; as, Door-key, chest-key, watch-key; or the different *kinds of glasses; as, Beer-glass, wine-glass, &c.

11. Notwithstanding which, there is some common ground for derivation and composition, and the two forms may alternate. In such a case the derivative is the most forcible, and the compound is the most precise in its import. Thus we have in English (neglecting accidental differences of usage) hunter and huntsman, speaker and spokesman, trader and tradesman, plougher and ploughman, hatter and hat-maker, steamer, and steam-boat, bakery and bake-house, brewery and brew-house, patchery and patch-work, treasury and treasure-house, deemster and domesman; so also where the words are radically distinct; as, Fowler and bird-catcher, Hollander and Dutchman, journal and day-book, marine and seaman, navigating and seafaring, propitiatory and mercy-seat, vintage and grape-gathering, vintner and wine-seller. These coincidences take place only when the second part of the compound is a very general or indefinite term, or has become so by use. In this way words originally compound acquire

much of the character of derivatives.

12. Composition differs, also, from the mere syntactical combination of ideas. Composition is a development of words for constant, not merely for occasional use. It is not an arbitrary process in language, or a process to be adopted at pleasure. A proper compound must express a specific idea formed for permanent use in the language. Wherever it takes place, there should be an adequate cause or occasion. Not every combination of two ideas into one is properly expressed by a compound. Ideas combined at the moment of speaking or writing, for the first time, do not form compound words. It is owing to this principle that we have death-wound, not life-wound; father-land, not son-land; fox-hunter, not sheep-hunter; earth-quake, not sea-quake; brown bread, not fresh bread; sea-sick, not terror-sick, because the latter terms of these couplets are not called for. 13. The difference between the compound word and the mere syntactical construction may be seen,

(1.) By comparing black-bird, a species of bird, with a black bird; so red-bird, black-berry, mad-house. (2.) By comparing fox-tail, a plant so named from resemblance with the tail of a fox; so bear'sear, goat's-beard, lady's-finger. (3.) By comparing rať's-bane, a substance so called from its nature, with the bane of a rat; so catch-fly, king's evil, liver-wort.

14. The unity of the compound is further evident by considering, (1.) That in many words the members of the composition do not appear at first view, nor are they generally understood; as, Biscuit, curfew, daisy, kerchief, quinsy, squirrel, surgeon, verdict, vinegar. (2.) That in many words the meaning has so altered that the reason of the composition is not obvious; as, Frankincense, holiday, landlord, mildew, quicksand, quicksilver, pastime, privilege, Sunday, vouchsafe. (3.) That compounds may often be expressed by simple words, either in the same or another language; as, Brimstone, sulphur; May-bug, a chaffer; wine-glass, a tumbler; sheep-fold, Latin ovile; vine-yard, Latin vinea; foot-man, Latin pedes; oak-grove, Latin quercetum; dove-house, Latin columbarium.

SECTION CCCXCIV.-TEUTONIC COMPOUNDS.

Compound words in English, as distinguished from derivatives, have received comparatively but little attention; yet, from the great variety of the component parts, and the different relations in which they stand to each other, it is evident that these words deserve a more minute investigation.

Composition is the union of two independent words in order to form one. This union may be more or less complete.

I. Imperfect Composition.-When the two words denote distinct attributes of one and the same object, and their syntactical connection may be expressed by the simple conjunction and, the composition is then incomplete or imperfect. Of this nature are,—1. The union of two common names; as, God-man, God and man (compare Gr. Jeάvepwπos; Germ. fürst-bischof, prince and bishop; butterbrot, bread and butter; mann-weib, man and woman). 2. The union of two adjectives; as, Deaf-mute, deaf and mute (compare Germ. taub-stumm, Fr. sourd-muet); first-last, first and last (used by Young). 3. The union of two numerals; as, Fourteen, four and ten (comp. Lat. quatuordecim). 4. The union of two synonymous or nearly synonymous words; as, Hap-hazard, hap and hazard (comp. Germ. ehrfurcht, honour and fear).

Words of Teutonic origin of this class, divide the accent or tone between the two parts of the compound; as, God-man; while those of Latin origin follow the analogy of English words: as, Hermaphrodite. That the two words are united in one is evident from the fact that the latter part only of the compound is capable of change by inflection or derivation; as, genitive God-man's, plural deaf-mutes, derivative ordinal fourteenth, &c.

II. Perfect Composition.-When the two words form one complex idea, then the composition is complete or perfect. Of this there are two kinds:-1. When the two parts of the compound are in apposition or concord with each other. Here may be included,-(1.) The union of two common names; as, Foe-man. (2.) The union of the species and genus; as, Oak-tree. (3.) The union of a proper name