and the genus; as, Flint River. names; as, Charles Richards.

(4.) The union of two proper

2. When one part of the compound stands in rection, or government, in reference to the other, the latter part of the composition expressing the principal or generic idea, and the former part some modification thereof; as, Snow-white, steam-boat. The modifications to be expressed by the former part of the composition are very numerous, and may conveniently be arranged as cases are in our most scientific grammars :—

(1.) Where the first term expresses the nominative case, or the relation of the subject; as, Cock-crowing, the time at which cocks crow; slave-born (compare Anglo-Saxon theowboren), born a slave.

(2.) Where the first term expresses the dative case, or the case of participation; as, Head-band, a band for the head; tea-cup, a cup for tea; fire-brick, a brick that will endure the fire; fire-proof, secure against fire.

(3.) Where the first term expresses the accusative case, or the relation of the object; as, Shoe-maker, one that makes shoes; winebibber, one that drinks much wine; time-keeper, a machine that keeps time.

(4.) Where the first term expresses the modal case, or the relation of the mode or manner; as, Stone-blind, blind as a stone; snowwhite, white like snow; snow-whiteness, whiteness like snow; brandnew, new like a brand.

(5.) Where the first term expresses the ablative case, or the relation of the place whence; as, Land-breeze, a breeze from the land; straw bed, a bed made of straw; blood-guilty, guilty from blood or bloodshed; blood-guiltiness, guiltiness from bloodshed; toll-free, free from toll careless, loose or free from care.

(6.) Where the first term expresses the locative case, or the relation of the place where; as, Land-force, a force serving on land; homespun, spun at home; night-dew, dew that falls by night; woebegone, lost in woe.

(7.) Where the first term expresses the terminal case, or the relation of the terminus ad quem; as, Ground-bait, bait for fish which sinks to the bottom; home-speaking, forcible and efficacious speaking; ten-foot-pole, a pole ten feet in length.

;

(8.) Where the first term expresses the instrumental case, or the relation of the place by or through which; as, Way-laid, watched by the way; steam-boat, a boat moving by steam; wind-mill, a mill turned by the wind; moth-eaten, eaten by moths; careful, full of

care.

The same compound may sometimes belong to two classes; as, Horse-boat, a boat for conveying horses, see No. (2.); also, a boat moved by horses, see No. (8.).

3. The first word has the form of the genitive case:-(1.) In names of plants; as, Bear's-ear, bear's-foot, bear's-wort,

cat's-foot, cat's-head, goat's-beard, goat's-rue, goat's-thorn, hound'stongue, lady's-bower, lady's-comb, lady's-cushion, lady's-finger, lady'smantle, lady's-seal, lady's-slipper, Turk's-cap, Turk's-head, Turk'sturban, &c. (2.) In some names of minerals; as, Cat's-eye, rat'sbane. (3.) In some nautical terms; as, Cat's-paw. (4.) In some miscellaneous examples; as, Day's-man, king's evil, kinsfolk, kinsman, kinswoman, spokesman.

Sometimes these compounds contain the remains of ancient cases: —(1.) of the genitive: as, Aqueduct, from Latin aquæ ductus, a conveyance of water; (2.) of the dative; as, Deodand, from Latin Deo dandum, a thing forfeited to God; (3.) of the ablative; as, Vicegerent, from Latin vice gerens, acting by substitution; manumission, from Latin manu missio, a setting free; locomotive, from Latin loco motivus, changing its place; (4.) of the locative; as, Nightingale, from Teutonic nachtigall, a bird that sings in the night; (5.) of the genitive plural; as, Triumvir, from Latin trium vir, a man of three.

As the first part of the compound modifies the second, it is easy to distinguish between bean-pole, a pole for beans, and pole-bean, a bean that grows around poles; work-house, a house for work, and housework, work done in a house; freight-ship, a ship for freight, and shipfreight, the freight carried by a ship; flower-garden, a garden for flowers, and garden-flower, a flower growing in a garden; book-shop, a shop for books, and shop-book, an account-book; mankind, the kind or race of man, and kinman, a man of the same race or family; chestnut-horse, a horse of the colour of a chestnut, and horse-chestnut, a large nut; compare Anglo-Saxon theow-weorc, slave-work, and wearc-theow, work-slave.

Sometimes, when the two terms are in apposition, the parts of the compound may be inverted without an essential change in the meaning; as, Servant-woman and woman-servant; English hornpipe and Welsh pibcorn; Anglo-Saxon beot-word and word-beot; German raub-mord and mord-raub; sturm-wind and wind-sturm.

III. Inverted Composition.-There is a class of compound words deserving some attention, in which the order of the terms is inverted; as, Breakfast (compare Anglo-Saxon fæstenbryce, fast-breach, with the parts of the compound in the natural order); break-promise (an obsolete word, for which we now use promise-breaker); break-stone (obsolete, now stone-break, compare Latin saxifragum); pick-tooth (or, more commonly, tooth-pick or tooth-picker). This class includes,

1. Words peculiar to the English language: (1.) Trivial names in botany and zoology; as, Break-stone (obsolete); catch-fly, cut-water, turn-stone, wag-tail. (2.) Marine terms; as, Break-water, cut-water. (3.) Terms used by printers; as, Catch-word. (4.) Words of reproach; as, Break-promise (obsolete), break-vow (obsolete), catchpoll, cut-purse, cut-throat, hang-dog (obsolete), kill-buck (obsolete), kill-cow (obsolete), pick-lock, pick-fault (obsolete), pick-pocket, pick

purse, pick-quarrel (obsolete), pickthank, scape-gallows, scapethrift (obsolete), scare-crew, smellfeast, spendthrift, telltale, turncoat, turnspit, toss-pot, want-wit. (5.) Miscellaneous words; as, Breakfast (probably used at first to denote a trivial meal), catch-penny, picktooth. It is easily seen that there is one character pervading this sort of words.

2. Words derived from the French which are more dignified; as, Pastime, port-crayon, port-folio, port-glave, portmanteau, wardrobe also, hatchpot.

SECTION CCCXCV.IX. DISGUISED TEUTONIC DERIVATIVES AND

COMPOUNDS.

Derivatives and compounds in English, as in other languages, are usually formed on regular principles. Some few of them, however, especially those coming into extensive use, are so corrupted or disguised as greatly to obscure their origin.

EXAMPLES.-1. Atone, literally to be, or cause to be, at one, compounded of at and one. Compare Latin aduno, to unite.

This

origin of the word atone is obscured only in the pronunciation. The numeral has the same sound as in the derivative only. This explanation of the word atone is confirmed historically by extracts like the following from the old writers :

"If gentilmen, or other of that contree,

Were wroth, she wolde bringen hem at on,

So wise and ripe wordes hadde she."-CHAUCER.

"But also [it is required] that thou be fervent and diligent to make peace and to go betwene, where thou knowest or hearest malice and envie to be, or seest hate or strife to arise between person and person, and that thou leave nothing unsought to set them at one."— TYNDALL.

"And lyke as he made the Jewes and the gentiles at one be-twene themselves, even so he made them both at one with God, that there should be nothing to break the atonement, but that the thynges in heaven and the thynges in earth shoulde be joyned together, as it were, into one body."-UDAL.

"Ye witlesse gallants, I beshrew your hearts,
That set such discord 'twixt agreeing parts,
Which never can be set at onement more

Until the maw's wide mouth be stopped with store."-Bishop HALL. "The Hebrew kaphar signifies to appease, to pacify, to reconcile a person offended, to atone or make him at one again with the offender." -Bishop BEVERIDGE.

2. Daisy (Anglo-Saxon dæges eage, day's eye, compounded of dæges, day's, and eage, eye), the name of a spring flower, as if the eye· of the day.

3. Not (Old German niowiht, compounded of ne and awiht; Anglo-Saxon nawht, compounded of ne and awht), a particle express

ing negation, denial, or refusal; the same word as naught or nought, compounded of ne, not, and aught, anything.

SECTION CCCXCVI.-CLASSICAL ELEMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

The following statements on this subject are deemed important:1. The separation between Gothic or Teutonic and Classic words needs to be made with great discrimination. Thus, wade and waddle are of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon wadan, German waten and watscheln), and not to be derived from Latin vado. Drag is of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon dragan, German tragen), and not from Latin traho. Long, length, and linger, are of Teutonic origin (compare Moso-Gothic laggs, Anglo-Saxon lang, lengs, German lang), and not from Latin longus. Meager is of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon mæger, German mager), and not from Latin macer. The orthography meager seems, however, to have been affected by the French form maigre, which perhaps is of Teutonic origin. Rank and rankle are of Teutonic origin (compare AngloSaxon ranc, German ranzig), and not from Latin ranceo.

2. The cognate roots in Latin and Teutonic, when they coexist in the English language, need to be noticed. Thus, Latin vad, whence come invade, invader, invasive, invasion; and Anglo-Saxon wade, whence come wader, wading, waddle. Latin volv, whence come revolve, revolution, revolt, voluble, volume, volute, volt, valve; and Anglo-Saxon wealw, whence come wallow, wallower, wallowing. Latin trah, whence come trace, track, tract, trait, attract, attrahent, attractive, portray; and Anglo-Saxon drag, whence come drag, draw, draggle. This point is the more important, as, out of the two hundred Latin roots involved in English words, more than one-third are cognate to roots already existing in the Teutonic portion of our language. The cognation in stem-nouns is probably not so great.

3. Words of Latin and words of Greek origin should be distinguished from each other. This separation often requires nice discrimation. Thus, aerology and aeronaut are from the Greek aer; and aerial and aeriform are from the Latin aer.

4. The cognate roots of the Latin and Greek languages, when they coexist in the English language, need to be noticed. Thus, Greek ag, whence paragoge, and Latin ag, whence agent; Greek aph, whence apsis, and Latin ap, whence apt; Greek aug, whence auxesis, and Latin aug, whence augment; Greek klin, whence clinic, and Latin clin, whence incline; Greek kri, whence crisis, and Latin root cre, whence secret; Greek gen, whence genesis, and Latin gen, whence general; Greek gno, whence gnosis, and Latin gno, whence ignorant. 5. The corresponding forms of Greek and Latin prefixes should be noticed. Thus, Greek an Latin in (negative); Greek anti= Latin ante; Greek apo Latin ab; Greek dia Latin dis; Greek ec = Latin e or ex; Greek en = in.

=

=

=

6. The corresponding forms of Greek and Latin suffixes should be

noticed.

Greek tos

Thus, Greek icos Latin icus; Greek ôn Latin ens;

Latin tus.

7. The difference of the union-vowel in Latin and in Greek compounds should be attended to. Thus, aer-i-form and agr-i-culture come from the Latin, and aer-o-naut and phil-o-sophy from the Greek.

8. The distinction between stem-words and derivatives from the same root should be noticed. Thus, toga is a stem-word, and tegument a derivative from Latin teg.

9. The distinction between primary derivatives and secondary derivatives from the same root should be noticed. Thus, agile is a primitive derivative, and agility a secondary derivative from Latin ag.

10. The mutilated or disguised Latin forms should be noted, and referred to their regular forms. Thus, boil should be referred to the bull, in ebullition; noy to the noc, in innocent; cay, in decay, to the cad, in decadence.

11. The combination of Latin and Teutonic words to make one family should be noticed. Thus, length from the Anglo-Saxon, and longitude from the Latin, are so combined; also, son from the AngloSaxon, and filial from the Latin.

12. Greek words which have come down to us from the Teutonic should be distinguished from others. Such words are alms, bishop, devil, priest.

13. Latin words which have come down to us through the AngloSaxon should be distinguished from others. Such words are ark, candle, chalice, &c.

The best mode of exhibiting these things, in the common manuals, to the mind of the pupil, is still a desideratum.

SECTION CCCXCVII.-NATURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE LATIN PORTION OF OUR LANGUAGE.

The natural development of the Latin language, so far as the Latin portion of our tongue is concerned, has been nearly as

follows:

I. Stem-verbs, or roots, originally denoting physical action or motion; as, Bib, carp, cede, fend, lave, merge, move, plague, probe, sculp, tend, tinge, urge, verge, vex. Most of the verbs here concerned appear in English only in derivatives and compounds.

II. Stem-adjectives, to be referred in each case to a verbal root, whether such root actually exists or not; as, Bland, brute; brev, "short," сес, "blind."

III. Stem-substantives, to be referred in each case to a verbal root, whether such root actually exists or not; as, Arc, barb; can, "dog" cib, "food."

IV. Primary derivatives, or derivatives from the root or stem by means of a single suffix; as, Act, final, factor, justice.

36 [ENG. LANG. 18.]