Another account says he died quietly in the presence of a physician of Amsterdam, calmly believing that he was going to his final rest. This is the more probable account of the two. Many avowed infidels have died without a mental struggle, and, as Spinoza had been so outspoken during his years of health, he could not think that much force would attach to any recantations he might make on his death-bed.

There are different stories about his desire for posthumous fame. One writer says that "he was extremely desirous to immortalize his name, and would willingly have sacrificed his life for it, though, in order to obtain it, he had been torn in pieces by the mob." On the other hand, it is claimed for him by his admirers, that he was of such exceeding modesty, he made a special request that no school of philosophy should be called after his name. There are better reasons for believing the latter than the former report. His mode of life, a secluded one by his own choice, but affable, fluent, and entertaining when interviews were obtained-his neglect to date his works, and attach his name to them— all point to a degree of modesty that could scarcely have been assumed.

The avowed followers of Spinoza are not numerous. Many who call themselves Spinozists, do not themselves know what they mean. Of these, large numbers never read the works of that philosopher, and of this number fewer still probably had a correct understanding of his doctrine. Spinozism is supposed by many to include all those persons who have but little religion, and who have less scruples in acknowledging their lack of it. This is not in accordance with the teachings of the originator of the doctrine. Spinoza not only frequently attended the church of the Lutherans, but he likewise

often engaged in exhorting others to go. He never uttered an oath, nor allowed an indecent expression concerning the Deity to escape his lips. He used wine very sparingly, and in other respects lived a life of abstemiousness. Colerus, who was a contemporary of Spinoza, who lived in the same town with him, although he combats his principles of philosophy, and although, like others, he accuses him of atheism, never allows an occasion to escape without rendering justice to his moral character and his noble sentiments.

We have but few accounts of Spinoza's personal appearance, one of which says "he was a little man of sallow complexion, who had something dismal in his face, and ominous about his bearing." An old Dutch engraving, executed at Amsterdam, but bearing no date, and exhibiting only his head and bust, gives him an expression of deep thought, tinged with melancholy. It accompanies his work, and was probably taken near his fortieth year of age.

ER,

ART. II.-Homes for the Friendless. By J. A. THACKM. D., Professor of Psychology and Diseases of the Mind, in the Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery, Cincinnati, Ohio.

ON September 17th, we learn from the newspapers, there was laid the corner-stone of a building in the course of erection in Cincinnati, to be devoted to the purpose of reclaiming those females who have departed from the paths of virtue. The subject is surely a most worthy one, and deserves the highest commendation; but whether or not it will meet with success remains to be shown. In our opinion, while it may result in

some good in a few individual instances, in the main it will be a failure. We are led to make this assertion from the belief brought about by reading the account of the ceremonies that took place, that the institution will be conducted exclusively upon theologico-metaphysical principles, entirely ignoring the truths of physiology, psychology, and the natural sciences. It will be assumed that the individual is by nature depraved, as the result of some abstract contamination, and that this depravity is to be gotten rid of in some unknown manner by a course of penance, contrition, and severe training in moral duties. The ladies who compose the management, together with their gentlemen assistants, will not think for a moment, as science plainly teaches, that themselves and the poor creatures for whom they are erecting a home are on a perfect equality so far as regards any inherent good or evil, and that it was the force of circumstances, over which they exercise no more control than they exercise over the seasons, which has given to each one her position.

Every passion, emotion, or desire which a human being possesses has been implanted within him for his own good; and "the evil that is within him" is but an exaggerated condition of some one or more of them, or a want of development in counteracting ones, which has been the result of causes which he had nothing to do in producing. In an article which we published during the present year, we alluded to the fact, which Quetelet long since pointed out, that in particular communities, from year to year, with but slight variation, the same amount of crime was continually occurring; and that in the commission of particular crimes, as homicide, suicide, theft, etc., their number, in a given period, could be stated

previously with but slight error-and we concluded from this that there were great general laws or forces leading to such actions, and that it was due to special laws or forces which determined who the individual should be who should do them.' These are the legitimate deductions from undoubted facts gained by observation, and the conclusion from them is that man's volition is more seeming than real-that while he may have the consciousness of willing, or believes he does, in all his conduct he is only carrying out an unvarying law. When we come to examine physiol. ogy, we are confirmed in our view. We find that the will, so called, has no distinct entity, but "simply expresses the due coördinate activity of the supreme centres of mental force, not otherwise than as the coordinate activity of the spinal cord or medulla oblongata might be said to represent its will-the faculty, in both cases, being commonly an acquired one in man." a In the simplest form of the nervous system, consisting of an afferent and an efferent nerve and a ganglion, all action, as all will admit, is but "reflex" or excito-motor. In this form, an impression made upon the afferent nerve is conveyed to the ganglion, and from it discharged into the efferent nerve, resulting in a muscular contraction. Here there is neither

2

'Buckle's "History of Civilization."

Many persons, in support of the doctrine of free-agency, appeal to the testimony of consciousness; but, when we come to analyze what consciousness testifies, we must admit that its testimony is not infallible. It is well known that it is just as positive in its evidence with those who are delirious from fever, or suffering from mania a potu, or who are insane, as with those who have no malady. It testifies to operations of mind proceeding, but gives no evidence of their correctness. To employ a very homely illustration-the pig, if it could speak, would undoubtedly say that it sought its wallow from choice, because it was conscious of it; but we know that it does so from a law of its being.

3

Maudsley's "Physiology and Pathology of the Mind.”

sensation nor perception-no sensation, because there is no sensorium; and no perception, because there is no cerebrum. In the lowest forms of animal life, we find this form to constitute the whole of their nervous systems; and even in man a considerable part of the nervous system is constructed on this simple plan. In a higher form, we have a collection of ganglionic centres, which are the organs of special sense, and collectively are termed the sensorium, and its actions seem to be entirely of a "consensual" character, or sensori-motor. "Like the preceding, they must be accounted purely ' automatic,' since neither emotion, reason, nor will has any participation in them.... The very perfection of the adaptation (of the work of such animals possessing such a nervous system, as bees and other insects) is often of itself a sufficient evidence of the unreasoning character of the being which performs the work.” In the third and highest form of the nervous system, as we find it in man and other vertebrated animals, there is a cerebrum superimposed; and in all such animals there is psychical power-intelligence-existing just in proportion to its development-the relation between the degree of intelligence and the amount of development of the cerebrum being invariable.

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That from the cerebrum proceeds all mental power, intellectuality, and feeling, is so evident, all admit it; but at this point the metaphysician and the psychologist differ: the former maintaining that it is only the instrument through which some spiritual essence operates; while the latter, following the teachings of physiology, holds that it is the source of intelligence— that mental action is but a force proceeding from it. If a spiritual essence operates through the cerebrum in Carpenter's "Principles of Physiology."

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