nineteen years afterwards. In 1781 the first slop-ships (a kind of floating baths and washhouses) were established. The separation of the sick, proper cleansing and disinfection, the use of distilled water, and many other practical sanitary measures now carried out, have met with much stolid opposition in their day, and it was only at the beginning of the present century that our navy was really brought into its present state of sanitary excellence. We were taught naval hygiene by terrible experience. For example

"In 1779, 70,000 men were voted for the service of the navy; of these, 28,592 were sent sick to hospital, and 1658 died. In 1813, out of just twice the number (140,000), 13,071 were sent to hospital, and 977 died. In 1779, therefore, the sick were more than 2 in every 5, and the deaths 1 in every 42; while in 1813 the sick were about 2 in 21, and the deaths 1 in 143-the sickness reduced to a fourth, the deaths to little more than a third!

form, as you see, a descending series-20,544 in 1797; 15,713 in 1798; 14,608 in 1799; 8083 in 1805; 7662 in 1806. Or take a similar comparison, where the numbers voted were in each year 100,000. The years 1782, 1795, and 1804, the figures for the sick are 22,909, 20,579, 7650. These figures speak for themselves. They are very eloquent."—(Dr. GUY, Public Health.)

What sanitary measures and general management can effect is seen in the returns of the health of our navy for 1871. The total force then amounted to 47,460, and the death-rate from disease was only 63 per 1000.

From the same report we also learn that out of the whole force of 47,460 men, there were only four cases of scurvy in the year, a triumph of sanitation.

There are, however, still reforms and improvements required in the dietaries and medical service of the navy, as well as in the ventilation of the vessels. The following is a brief account of the dietaries of the different navies, with practical suggestions with respect to our own, taken from an excellent paper by Dr. John Hunter (Observations on the Dietaries of British and Foreign Navies) :

A note to the foregoing table says that when there is no dried fish (fired or sized fish) oatmeal is given, which was usually made into "burgoo."

It will be observed, that on certain days no meat was issued. These were the "banian" or "banyan" days, and are referred to by Smollett in his "Roderick Random." Six pounds of meat were issued weekly, being a pound for every day but Friday, which was a day of limited supply.

The great deficiencies of this scale are obvious, and are quite sufficient to explain the terrible mortality from scurvy that occurred during protracted voyages about this period. The Centurion, the celebrated flag-ship of Admiral Anson, lost about two hundred

men, out of a complement of between four and five hundred, during the months of April, May, and Jane 1741; and on arriving at Juan Fernandez on June 9th, there were only ten foremast men in a watch, all the others being helpless, or dying from scurvy. About eighty died during the last ten days, and the condition of the survivors was most horrible.

It is interesting to trace the gradual changes that have taken place in the scale of diet of the British Navy since the year 1720 up to the present time, which Dr. Hunter has been able to do by the aid of the admirable library at Haslar Hospital.

The table-beer allowed by the scale of 1720 was never carried in sufficient quantity to last above six

In 1761. Dr. Lind, R. N., discovered that fresh water could be distilled from sea-water, but little practical use was made of this important discovery till very many years afterwards, when it was applied to the cooking galleys of troop and emigrant ships, and to the boilers of steam-vessels.

In 1795, owing to the representations of Drs. Lind, Trotter, and other naval medical officers, lemonjuice was regularly issued to the crews of sea-going men-of-war.

At this time the usual breakfast of the men was oatmeal boiled in water, and sweetened with molasses, when procurable.

Cocoa was now used by vessels on the West India station, and soon afterwards came into general use for breakfast throughout the navy, in place of the much disliked "burgoo."

In 1824 a great change took place in the scale of diet. Banyan days were abolished, and the following scale introduced:

Cocoa, one ounce.

Sugar, one and half ounce.
Fresh meat, one pound.
Vegetables, half a pound.
Tea, quarter of an ounce.
Weekly-Oatmeal, half-pint.
Vinegar, half-pint.

"When fresh meat and vegetables are not procurable, there shall be allowed in lieu thereof, salt beef, three-quarters of a pound; and flour, threequarters of a pound; or, salt pork, three-quarters of a pound; and peas, half a pint," Raisins and suet were allowed for an equal weight of flour, in a cer

tain proportion. This was the first issue of tea; and the ration of spirits substituted for the gallon of beer was reduced from half a pint to one gill; and from two shillings and sixpence to three shillings and sixpence a month was added to the pay of the

men.

It is curious to note, that though, according to the circulars, "banyan days were abolished," yet the amount of salt meat a week was reduced by threequarters of a pound.

In 1850 the following scale was introduced, in which the spirit ration was again reduced one-half, and the salt-meat ration raised to one pound daily:

Biscuit, one pound; spirits, half a gill; fresh meat one pound; vegetables, one pound; sugar, one and three-quarter ounces; chocolate, one ounce; tea, quarter of an ounce, daily.

Oatmeal, quarter pint; mustard, half an ounce; pepper, quarter ounce; vinegar, quarter pict, weekly.

"When fresh meat cannot be procured, there shall be substituted, salt pork, one pound; peas, half-pint every alternate day; and salt beef, one pound, with flour three-quarters of a pound; or preserved meat, three-quarters of a pound; and preserved potatoes or rice, quarter of a pound on every alternate non-salt-pork day." Suet and raisins as before. The preserved meat was so often found to be either offal or putrid, that it was soon discontinued. In 1856 split peas were issued instead of whole peas.

In April 1859 the ration of biscuit was increased to one and a quarter pounds, and sugar to two

ounces.

Leave was also given to occasionally issue an extra ration of beef, an ounce of cocoa, and half an ounce of sugar. In 1865 a superior kind of preserved meat was issued, and is still in regular use.

It would be more esteemed in the tropics if it were sometimes eaten cold, instead of being warmed first. Table No. II, is the scale of diet of the present time, 1871.

Total (excluding liquids).

liquids) .

These three tables refer to the diet of the men when at sea, as in harbour one pound of fresh meat and one pound of vegetables are issued daily in place of the salt or preserved meat. The officers provide their own food, and usually carry a sufficiency of live stock and preserved provisions, though they are entitled to draw the whole or a portion of the daily rations if they choose.

Table III. is slightly deficient in nitrogenous food, and the excess of carbonaceous is derived chiefly from the biscuit and salt pork, to get the full value from which requires excellent teeth and great capability of digesting fat. The result of a great number of observations that Dr. Hunter has made is, that seamen are generally deficient in the number of their teeth, many having lost four molar teeth before arriving at thirty years of age.

Table II, is also deficient in antiscorbutic food, the ill-effects of whose absence is only partially obviated by the use of lime-juice,

In Table III, which Dr. Hunter has drawn up as a proposed improvement upon the present scale, an endeavour has been made to better the diet, while as few changes as possible have been introduced.

Preserved meat is still restricted to twice a week, because the heat to which it is exposed during the process of preserving (226°) develops a kind of flavour akin to that of baked meat, which flavour quickly palls on the palates of most persons, and causes a positive dislike to arise if the meat is frequently used.

If by any process, such as boiling in vacuo, or at a great height, where the boiling-point is low, the meat could be preserved as simple boiled meat, and not overcooked as it is at present, then it could be substituted for the salt beef with very great advantage, for pickling renders the fibrine of beef indigestible.

Pork, from containing so much fat, does not lose

so much by salting as beef does, therefore it is issued thrice a week, and beef only twice.

Four ounces of preserved potatoes are added to the rations on one salt-beef day, and a soup of two ounces of compressed vegetables and two ounces of pearl barley on the other. One ounce of pickles is issued on every salt-meat day, as besides their antiscorbutic value, they aid the digestion of salt meat, and thus enable the system to extract more nutriment from it. The best and cheapest pickles are red cabbage and onions.

This table could be still further improved by substituting one quart of porter for the half-gill of rum, but the difficulty of stowage is the great objection to this; by making water an article of the ration, the minimum in the tropics being fixed at one gallon a day for each person, for there can be no doubt that it is simply cruel, as well as hurtful, to limit to the inadequate quantity of half a gallon each person, the amount of water supplied to men who are living on salted meat and going through active exercise in the heats of the tropics. The allowance in the Prussian Navy is 3 quarts daily to each person.

The men take dinner at noon, and about half-past four they have tea, which is called supper. There can be no doubt that it is much too long, particularly for men who work during the night, to go without any food, except biscuit and milkless tea, from noon till breakfast next morning at seven, a period of nineteen hours. Any one who doubts this may easily satisfy his mind, though not his body, by making the experiment. Tea is believed to have the power of retarding the waste of tissue, but the black-boiled milkless decoction that the men drink is chiefly a solution of tannin, and cannot have much other effect than causing constipation. The lime which the captains of the hold will insist upon throwing into the tanks "to keep the water sweet," will also, as well as the boiling, prevent the tea from being what it