measures, inspector of markets, &c., may be united with advantage in certain small towns or districts with that of nuisance or sanitary inspector. In electing such an inspector there are certain physical and mental endowments particularly essential. An inspector should be in good health, and not labour under any physical defect-such as imperfect sight, smell, &c.-which would impair his efficiency; he should not be timid or irresolute; while, on the other hand, a man passionate, reckless, prying, and unpopular should be avoided. He should certainly know how to read and write, and be able to make calculations with regard to cubic space, length of drains, &c. Other things being equal, a person brought up to one of the constructive trades is likely to make a better inspector than a farmer or shopkeeper, or a person of no special occupation. Hence we find sanitary authorities generally preferring masons, carpenters, surveyors, and builders to other candidates, who, with the exception of technical knowledge, may be quite equal to their competitors. The inspector of nuisances should at all times be ready to assist the medical officer of health, and should accompany him throughout the district, pointing out the principal places requiring amendment, and in all difficult cases asking his advice. He should be careful to send notices of overcrowding and infectious disease to the medical officer of health immediately he hears of their occurrence. He should be very careful to keep a record of all his visits, and ought to send quarterly to the medical officer of health a statement of the amount of work done by him, arranged under-(1) Number of houses visited; (2) number of nuisances reported; (3) nuisances still unabated; (4) the state of the slaughterhouses, lodging - houses, and schools in the district; (5) action taken under the Adulteration Acts, &c. The following are the regulations of the Local Government Board relative to the appointment, tenure of office, and duties of an inspector of nuisances : SECTION I.-Appointment. Art. 1. A statement shall be submitted to the Local Government Board, showing the population and extent of the district for which the sanitary authority pro pose to appoint the inspector of nuisances, and the salary or remuneration intended to be assigned to him; and where the circumstances render desirable the appointment of one inspector of nuisances for two or more sanitary districts, statements shall, in like manner, be submitted to the Local Government Board, showing the names of the districts to be combined for that purpose, the population and extent of each district, the mode in which it is intended that the appointment shall be made, whether jointly or severally by the sanitary authorities of those districts, and the amount of salary or remuneration proposed to be assigned to the officer appointed. Art. 2. When the approval of the Local Government Board has been given to the proposals submitted to them, the sanitary authority or authorities shall proceed to the appointment of an inspector of nuisances accordingly. Art. 3. No appointment of an inspector of nuisances shall be made under this order, unless an advertisement giving notice of the day when such appointment will be made, shall have appeared in districts, at least seven days before the day on which some public newspaper circulating in the district or such appointment is made: Provided that no such notice or advertisement shall be necessary for the appointment of a temporary substitute. Art. 4. Every such appointment hereafter made shall, within seven days after it is made, be reported to the Local Government Board by the clerk to the sanitary authority, or, in the case of a joint appointment, by the clerk to one of the sanitary authorities by whom the appointment is made. Art. 5. Upon the occurrence of a vacancy in such office, the sanitary authority or authorities shall proceed to make a fresh appointment, which shall be reported to the Local Government Board as required by sect. i. art. 4, of this order; but if the sanitary authority or authorities desire to make any fresh arrangement with respect to the district or the terms of the appointment, they shall, before filling up the vacancy, supply the particulars of the arrangement to the Local Government Board, in the manner prescribed by sect, i, art. 1, in regard to the first appointment; and if the approval of the Local Government Board be given, absolutely or with modifications, the sanitary authority or authorities shall then proceed to fill up the vacancy according to the terms of the approval so given. Art. 6. If any officer appointed under this order be at any time prevented by sickness or accident, or other sufficient reason, from performing his duties, the sanitary authority or authorities, as the case may be, may appoint a fit person to act as his temporary substitute, and may pay him a reasonable compensation for his services; and every such ap pointment shall be reported to the Local Govern ment Board as soon as the same shall have been made. SECTION II.-Tenure of Office. Art. 1. Every officer appointed under this order shall continue to hold office for such period as the sanitary authority or authorities appointing him may, with the approval of the Local Government Board, determine, or until he die, or resign, or be removed, by such authority or authorities, with the assent of the Local Government Board, or by the Local Government Board, Provided that the appointments first made under this order shall not be for a period exceeding five years. Art. 2. Where any such officer shall have been appointed after the passing of the Public Health Act, 1872, for one or more sanitary districts, and any change in the extent of the district or districts, or in the duties, salary, or remuneration, shall be deemed necessary, and he shall decline to acquiesce therein, the sanitary authority or authorities by whom he was so appointed may, with the consent of the Local Government Board, but not otherwise, and after six months' notice in writing, signed by their clerk or clerks, given to such officer, determine his office. Art. 3. No person shall be appointed who does not agree to give one month's notice previous to resigning the office, or to forfeit such sum as may be agreed upon as liquidated damages. SECTION III.-Duties. The following shall be the duties of the inspector of nuisances in respect of the district for which he is appointed, or if he shall be appointed for more than one district, then in respect of each of such districts: (1.) He shall perform, either under the special directions of the sanitary authority or (so far as authorised by the sanitary authority) under the directions of the medical officer of health, or in cases where no such directions are required, without such directions, all the duties specially imposed upon an inspector of nuisances by the Sanitary Acts, or by the orders of the Local Government Board. (2.) He shall attend all meetings of the sanitary authority when so required. (3.) He shall by inspection of the district, both systematically at certain periods, and at intervals as occasion may require, keep himself informed in respect of the nuisances existing therein that require abatement under the Sanitary Acts. (4.) On receiving notice of the existence of any nuisance within the district, or of the breach of any bylaws or regulations made by the sanitary authority for the suppression of nuisances, he shall, as early as practicable, visit the spot, and inquire into such alleged nuisance or breach of bylaws or regulations. (5.) He shall report to the sanitary authority any noxious or offensive businesses, trades, or manufactories established within the district, and the breach or non-observance of any bylaws or regulations made in respect of the same. (6.) He shall report to the sanitary authority any damage done to any works of water-supply, or other works belonging to them, and also any case of wilful or negligent waste of water supplied by them, or any fouling by gas, filth, or otherwise, of water used for domestic purposes. (7.) He shall from time to time, and forthwith upon complaint, visit and inspect the shops and places kept or used for the sale of butcher's meat, poultry, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, or flour, or as a slaughter-house, and examine any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, or flour which may be therein; and in case any such article appear to him to be intended for the food of man, and to be unfit for such food, he shall cause the same to be seized, and take such other proceedings as may be necessary in order to have the same dealt with by a justice: provided, that in any case of doubt arising under this clause, he shall report the matter to the medical officer of health, with the view of obtaining his advice thereon. (8.) He shall, when and as directed by the sanitary authority, procure and submit samples of food or drink, and drugs suspected to he adulterated, to be analysed by the analyst appointed under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875, and upon receiving a certificate stating that the articles of food or drink, or drugs, are adulterated, cause a complaint to be made, and take the other proceedings prescribed by that Act. (9.) He shall give immediate notice to the medical officer of health of the occurrence within his district of any contagious, infectious, or epidemic disease of a dangerous character; and whenever it appears to him that the intervention of such officer is necessary in consequence of the existence of any nuisance injurious to health, or of any overcrowding in a house, he shall forthwith inform the medical officer thereof, (10.) He shall, subject in all respects to the direc tions of the sanitary authority, attend to the instructions of the medical officer of health with respect to any measures which can be lawfully taken by him under the Sanitary Acts for preventing the spread of any contagious, infectious, or epidemic disease of a dangerous character. (11.) He shall enter from day to day, in a book to be provided by the sanitary authority, particu lars of his inspections and of the action taken by him in the execution of his duties. He shall also keep a book or books, to be provided by the sanitary authority, so arranged as to form, as far as possible, a con. tinuous record of the sanitary condition of each of the premises in respect of which any action has been taken under the Sanitary Acts, and shall keep any other systematic records that the sanitary authority may require. (12.) He shall at all reasonable times when applied to by the medical officer of health, produce to him his books, or any of them, and render to him such information as he may be able to furnish with respect to any matter to which the duties of inspector of nuisances relate. (13.) He shall, if directed by the sanitary authority to do so, superintend and see to the dee execution of all works which may be under taken under their direction for the suppression or removal of nuisances within the district. (14.) In matters not specifically provided for in this order, he shall observe and execute all the lawful orders and directions of the sanitary authority, and the orders which the Local Government Board may hereafter issue applicable to his office. SECTION IV.-Remuneration. Art. 1. The sanitary authority or authorities, as the case may be, shall pay to any officer appointed under this order such salary or remuneration as may be approved by the Local Government Board; and where such officer is appointed for two or more districts, the salary shall be apportioned amongst the districts in such manner as the said board shall approve. Provided that the sanitary authority or authorities, with the approval of the Local Government Board, may pay to any such officer a reasonable compensation on account of extraordinary services, or other unforeseen circumstances connected with his duties or the necessities of the district or districts for which he is appointed. Art. 2. The salary or remuneration of every such officer shall be payable up to the day on which he ceases to hold the office, and no longer, subject to any deduction which the sanitary authority or authorities may be entitled to make in respect of sect. ii. art. 3; and in case he shall die whilst holding such office, the proportion of salary (if any) remaining unpaid at his death shall be paid to his personal representatives. Art. 3. The salary or remuneration assigned to such officer shall be payable quarterly, according to the usual feast-days in the year-namely, Lady Day, Midsummer Day, Michaelmas Day, and Christmas Day; but the sanitary authority or authorities may pay to him at the expiration of every calendar month such proportion as they may think fit on account of the salary or remuneration to which he may become entitled at the termination of the quarter. See OFFICERS, APPOINTMENT OF. Inspectors, Local Government Board-The inspectors of the Local Government Board have, in respect of any inquiry directed by the board, similar powers to those of poor-law inspectors relative to the examination of witnesses, the production of papers, &c.-(P. H., s. 296.) They are also empowered to attend any meetings of rural or of an urban authority (being a local board), when and as directed by the Local Government Board.-(P. H., s. 205.) Intemperance-See ALCOHOLISM. Iodine (I.=127)-Iodine is an element obtained from kelp, the vitrified ashes of seaweed, which being dissolved, a liquor is ultimately obtained, containing the iodides of sodium, potassium, magnesium, &c. These iodides are decomposed by the addition first of sulphuric acid, and then of peroxide of manganese, and the iodine sublimed and collected in suitable receivers. Iodine is usually met with in the form of black scales or laminar crystals, with a metallic lustre, specific gravity 4.95, with an odour similar to chlorine. It melts when heated, and then sublimes in a violet vapour, without leaving any residue. It is soluble in rectified spirits and ether; slightly so in pure water; but to a much greater extent in a watery solution of iodide of potassium and chloride of sodium. The aqueous solutions precipitate starch of a dark blue colour. In free alkaline solutions iodine dissolves, and forms iodides and iodates. This important therapeutic agent was accidentally discovered in 1812 by | De Courtois, a saltpetre manufacturer of Paris; but the merit of its introduction into pharmacy is due to Dr. Coindet, a physician of Geneva. With its numerous pharmaceutical uses we have nothing to do; it is chiefly of interest to the hygienist as a strong disinfectant, in which capacity it may be compared to chlorine. Its smell, unlike that of bromine, is not unpleasant. A piece of meat, about 1 inch broad and thick, and about 3 inches long, suspended in iodine vapour by Dr. A. Smith, remained perfectly good. It became white inside, but acquired no smell of iodine. It is not, perhaps, so useful as chlorine, since it condenses easily, and does not diffuse everywhere, as does the latter. Dr. Richardson proposes to saturate a solution of peroxide of hydrogen with iodine, and to add 24 per cent. of sea-salt. By "atomising" or "pulverising" the fluid by the little instrument used for this purpose, the air can be charged with iodine and sea-salt spray very readily. Iodine decomposes sulphuretted hydrogen, and will therefore destroy much odour. Another method employed for the purpose of diffusing it through the air of a room is that of placing the iodine on a hot plate. Adulteration.-Water, iodide of cyanogen, fixed impurities, as plumbago, black oxide of manganese, charcoal, iron, &c. The first two are volatile. Water can be detected by finding whether bibulous paper is moistened by iodine. Iodide of cyanogen may be detected by distilling the iodine at a very low temperature, when this salt sublimes in white crystalline needles before the iodine comes over. The fixed impurities are left after sublimation. Ipecacuanha-The dried root of the Cephaëlis Ipecacuanha, imported from Brazil. It occurs in pieces 3 or 4 inches long, and somewhat about the size of a small writing quill, more or less contorted, and either simple or branched. In consequence of a number of deep circular fissures, it has a knotty appearance. The fissures are about a line in depth, and extend inwardly through the cortical portion to a central white ligneous cord, so as to produce the appearance of a number of rings strung upon a thread. Ipecacuanha has an acrid and somewhat bitter, nauseous taste, and a slightly nauseous but peculiar odour. Three varieties are known in commerce-viz., the brown, the red, and the grey annulated ipecacuanha. Ipecacuanha contains a feeble alkaloid, emetina, separable as a whitish or yellowish amorphous powder, of a bitter taste, soluble ores; it is also found in the blood, and is one of the constituents of several natural waters. The oxide of iron purifies water to a considerable extent, and is used in various filtering processes. See FILTERS. Many of the salts of iron possess antiseptic and disinfectant properties of the highest value, and being cheap, are adapted for use on a large scale. Dr. Voelcker declares spongy iron to be a deodorising material of greater power than animal charcoal. Sewage-water passed through a filter of this substance is said to be completely purified; and this filtered water, after being kept for six months, protected from air, has been found to be perfectly sweet and free from any fungoid growth. The spongy iron is obtained by calcining a finely-divided iron ore with charcoal. Of all the different salts of iron which might be used for disinfecting purposes, the sulphate possesses at present the most favour; but the chloride and acetate appear of equal power, and have the advantage of not evolv ing sulphuretted hydrogen, which the sulphate in contact with organic matter occasionally does. Sulphate of iron, either in solution or in substance, was the favourite disinfectant of Dr. W. Budd, who recommended its use in typhoid fever. (See FEVER, TYPHOID.) Experience has shown that it really possesses some considerable value in the destruction of contagious matter. See DISINFECTANTS. The different salts of iron have been administered as poisons and as abortives; for the latter purpose, the sulphate is used in France, the muriate or perchloride in England. The best ipecacuanha yields about 1 per cent. of pure emetina. The microscopical appearances of ipecacuanha are well marked and characteristic. The root consists of an outer cortical por- of blood; they can generally be distinguished tion and an inner woody part. 1. Cortical portion.-The cortical portion mainly consists of colourless cells filled with starch corpuscles. It is clothed with an epidermis composed of deep brown cells. 2. The medullary portion possesses a remarkable structure, mainly consisting of woody fibres containing starch corpuscles. The extreme rarity of starch corpuscles in woody fibre renders this a very characteristic feature. Adulterations.-Other sorts, such as those of striated ipecacuanha, have been substituted for the true root. Starch, chalk, tartar-emetic, and other substances have been mixed with the powdered substance. Iron moulds have been mistaken for spots by their brown colour, and by the absence of all stiffening of the fibre in the stained spot. They are quite insoluble in water, and the ferrocyanide of potassium test will at once show their true nature. Various preparations of iron have been found in the following substances, the admis ture having for its object either coloration or increase of weight: Tea, coffee, chicory, annatto, porter, tobacco, snuff, cayenne, red sauces, potted meats and fish, bottled anchovies. In some of the above small quantities of iron exist naturally. The soluble salts of iron respond to the following tests: Both the ferrous and ferric salts are not precipitated from acid solutions Irish Ague-The old Irish designation for sulphate throws down a black precipitate of by sulphuretted hydrogen, and ammoniac hydrotyphus fever. See FEVER, TYPHUS. Iron-Iron exists native, in the form of oxide, carbonate, sulphide, &c., in various hydrated sulphide. The ferrous salts give a grey or green precipitate of hydrated protoxide with the alkalies; the ferric, similarly treated, a reddish-brown precipitate of sesqui- | already spread; and thirdly, he has formidoxide. Potassic ferrocyanide gives a pale blue precipitate with the ferrous salts, a bright blue with the ferric; but the best way to distinguish between the ferrous and ferric salts is by means of the ferridcyanide of potash: this salt gives a bright blue precipitate with the former, and no precipitate with the latter salts. Methods of estimating the amount of iron in water, the ash of food, &c., are given under WATER, VOLUMETRIC SOLUTIONS, &c. Irrigation Sewage-See SEWAGE, UTI LISATION OF. Isinglass-The finest kinds of isinglass are obtained from the inner membrane of the floating bladder of the genus Acipenser, or sturgeon. The bladder is opened, folded, and twisted, and this is the only preparation the isinglass receives. Good isinglass should be almost entirely soluble in boiling water, and the solution should form, when cold, a nearly white, scentless, semi-transparent, solid jelly. It is soluble in weak acids, and this solution is precipitated by alkalies. The aqueous solution is not precipitated by spirit of the common strength. One part of good isinglass dissolved in twenty-five parts of hot water forms a rich tremulous jelly. Isinglass may be distinguished from gelatine by the following methods: able obstacles to contend against in the ignorance and prejudice existing in all classes of society with regard to sanitary precautions. All medical men in practice know, indeed, that it is absolutely impossible to isolate their patients, with the exception of those who have roomy houses, and those who can be induced or compelled to go to special institutions, such as fever hospitals, &c. At some future time this state of things may be altered, viz.- 1. When contagious hospitals are established in every place, in number and size proportioned to the population. 2. When every individual, not having facilities in his own home for isolation, shall be compelled by law to repair, when possible, to such institution. 3. When in such cases large powers are given to medical officers of health and sanitary authorities. Under very favourable conditions, isolation of a fairly perfect character is of course possible, and in practice the following principles should guide us : 1. The patient must be placed in an airy ward, room, or tent. 2. The windows may be opened, but when they are, should be protected by fine muslin or gauze, as it is amply proved that flies and other insects often convey infection. 3. There must be one or more nurses in attendance, and these not permitted to go out without a previous change of dress and a complete bath. the letter. 5. The ventilation and warming must be of the most perfect description, and so arranged as not to send streams of infected air into the A particle of isinglass put into cold water remains opaque, like a piece of white thread, and does not swell out; whereas gelatine be4. All the measures described under Disincomes transparent, and enlarges a good deal infection, Contagion, &c., must be carried out to bulk. Jelly made from good isinglass remains neutral to test papers, and has a slightly fishy smell; jelly made from gelatine, on the other hand, has a distinct odour of glue and an acid reaction. If a few grains of isinglass be burnt in a metal spoon until the ash alone remains, the ash will be very small in quantity and of a reddish colour; while that of gelatine will be much larger in amount and white in appearance. Isinglass agrees with a delicate stomach much better than gelatine. See GELATINE. house, or into adjoining dwellings. 6. The nurses, medical attendant, clergymen, and absolutely necessary visitors, should, on entrance into the house, be given a long loose cotton robe, well buttoned up round the throat, and tight round the wrists. This garment should be put on before seeing the patient, and afterwards well heated in an oven. On leaving, the visitor should take care to wash the face and hands with a little dilute Condy's fluid. It is indeed greatly to be feared that medical men and other visitors occasionally convey infection; and as it is impossible for them to carry a change of dress with them, it should be provided by the patient. |