officer with his own seal, shall, if required, be left with the vendor for reference in case of disputes as to the correctness of the analysis or otherwise; and the certificate of the person who analyses such samples shall state the name and address of the

vendor, and that the vessels were not open, and that

the seals securing to the vessels the name and address of the vendor were not broken, until such time as he opened the vessels for the purpose of making his analysis; and in such case as aforesaid no certificate shall be receivable in evidence unless there is

like effect.

Any expenses incurred in analysing any intoxicating liquor of a vendor in pursuance of this section shall, if such vendor be convicted of selling or keeping, or exposing for sale, or having in his possession adulterated liquor, in contravention of this Act, be deemed to be a portion of the costs of the proceedings against him, and shall be paid by him accordingly. In any other event such expenses shall be paid as part of the expenses of the officer who procured the sample.

plants:

Kinds of Algæ.

these

FIRST SCHEDULE.

Deleterious Ingredients.

Cocculus Indicus, chloride of sodium, otherwise common salt, copperas, opium, Indian hemp, strychnine, tobacco, darnel seed, extract of logwood, salts of zinc or lead, alum, and any extract or compound of any of the above ingredients.

(See

Aldehyd-A name given by chemists to a class of bodies intermediate between the alcohols and the acids. Each of the alcohols may be made to furnish its aldehyd. ALCOHOL.) Thus we have acetic, propionic, butyric, and valeric aldehyd. They are less oxidised than the acids, and the general principle in preparing them is by gradual oxidation. Thus, if the vapour of alcohol is transmitted, mixed with air, through a porcelain tube, heated to low redness, or if it is acted upon by chromic or nitric acid, aldehyd is formed. The most usual way, however, is that of Liebig, who distilled alcohol with sulphuric acid and black oxide of manganese.

Aldehyd, thus prepared, is a volatile liquid, inflammable, neutral to test-paper, forming a crystalline substance with ammonia, and a brown resinous mass with liq. potassa. It reduces the salts of silver, and with chlorine forms chloral.

It is a test for alcohol, which may, by any of the above processes, be converted into aldehyd.

Ale-See BEER.

Algæ-A tribe of subaqueous plants, including sea-weeds (Fucus), and the lavers (Ulva) growing in salt water, and the fresh-water confervas. Those sea-weeds which are of commercial value belong to the great division of

Laminaria digitata, or
dulse tangle..
Rhodomenia palmata..
Porphyra laciniata.....
Iridæa edulis
Alaria esculenta........

19-61 80.39 3.088 19:300 1791 82.09 2-424 15-150

It would then appear from these gratifying results that sea-weeds are among the most nutritious of vegetable substances-richer in nitrogenous matter than oatmeal or Indian corn. The varieties at present used are the following: Porphyra laciniata and vulgaris, called laver in England, stoke in Ireland, and slouk in Scotland. Chondrus crispus, called carrageen or Irish moss, and also pearl-moss and sea-moss. Laminaria digitata, known as the sea-girdle in England, tangle in Scotland, and red-ware in the Orkneys; and Laminaria saccharina, Alaria esculenta, or bladder-lock, called also hen-ware, and honey-ware by the Scotch. Ulva latissima or green laver-Rhodomenia palmata, or dulse of Scotland.

These are the principal varieties which are eaten by the coast inhabitants of this country

and the Continent; indeed in parts of Scot

land and Ireland they form a considerable portion of the diet of the poor. The lavers, under the name of "marine sauce, were once esteemed a luxury in London. The first thing to be done in preparing them for food is to steep them in water, to remove the saline matter, and in some cases a little carbonate of soda added to the water will remove the bitterness. They should then be stewed in

Alga in Water.-In nearly all waters alga are present, and they cannot be held to indicate any great impurity; to condemn water because of their presence would be really to condemn all waters, even rain, in which minute algoid vesicles (protococci) are often found.

Aliments-See FOOD.

Alkali The term alkali is of Arabic origin; it was given in the first instance to carbonate of soda, or sodic carbonate, which was then obtained from the ashes of seaweeds; but it is now extended to a class of substances possessing many qualities exactly the reverse of those of acids. An alkali is soluble in water, and produces a liquid, soapy to the touch, and of a peculiar nauseous taste; it restores the blue colour to vegetable infusions which have been reddened by an acid. It turns many of these blue colours into green, as in the cases of a solution of red cabbage and of syrup of violets; and it gives a brown colour to vegetable yellows, such as those of turmeric and rhubarb. For the regulations applicable to alkali-works, see ALKALI ACTS.

Alkali Acts-The principal Alkali Act is the 26 & 27 Vict. c. 24, amended by 37 & 38 Vict. c. 43, the amended Act coming into operation in 1875.

Every alkali-work must be carried on so as to ensure the condensation of not less than 95 per cent. of muriatic acid evolved therein; and it must be so condensed that in each cubic foot of air, smoke, or chimney gases escaping from the works into the atmosphere there is not contained more than one-fifth part of a grain of muriatic acid. Penalty for first conviction, £50; for second and other offences, £100, or less (26 & 27 Vict. c. 124, & 4; 37 & 38 Vict. c. 43, s. 4).

The owner of every alkali-work is also bound to "use the best practicable means of preventing the discharge into the atmosphere of all other noxious gases arising from such work, or of rendering such gases harmless when discharged." The noxious gases are defined to be sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid (except that arising from the combustion of coals), nitric acid, or other noxious oxides of nitrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, and chlorine (57 & 38 Vict. c. 43, s. 5 and 8).

The owner is liable for any offence against the Alkali Acts, unless he prove that the offence was committed by some agent, servant, or workman, and without his knowledge,

Every alkali-work must be registered: penalty for neglect, £5 per day (ibid. s. 6).

Powers are given to owners to make special rules for the guidance of their workmen (ibid. s. 13).

Alkalimetry-This is the reverse of acidimetry, and signifies the chemical determination of alkali in any given sample or solution.

This may be determined by several methods. If the alkali is dissolved in pure water, the specific gravity may be taken, and, by the aid of the following tables the percentage composition ascertained.

If the alkali is in the form of carbonate, the carbonic acid may be expelled by an acid, and from the loss the amount of alkali ascertained.-(FRESENIUS and WILL.) In the case of ammonia, the colorimetric method described under WATER ANALYSIS may be used.

The more usual method, however, is based upon the capacity of the base to saturate acids. (For the method of Fresenius and Will, see ACID, CARBONIC.) This method only requires one fluid of known strength, e.g., a standard sulphuric acid.

(a) In order to prepare this, 5 grammes of carbonate of soda are ignited gently in a platinum crucible, and then accurately weighed, next dissolved in about 200 c.c. of water, and lastly coloured blue with tincture of litmus.

(b) 60 grammes of concentrated sulphuric acid are mixed with 500 c.c. of distilled water, and cooled.

The acid is now added from a burette to the point of saturation to the 5-grammes solution of soda. If the carbonate was not exactly 5 grammes, a rule-of-three sum will easily calculate it into 5 grammes. Having obtained

thus the number of centimetres of the acid which saturates 5 grammes of carbonate of soda, the acid must be diluted, so as to give a fluid 50 c.c. of which exactly saturates 5 grammes of carbonate of soda. For example, if 40 c.c. of the acid does this, 10 c.c. of water must be added to each 40 of acid, when the acid is thus prepared :

Alkaloids - The volatile alkaloids may be extracted by simply digesting the plant containing them in a weak solution of potash or soda, and distilling them in a suitable retort with condenser. The distillate is then neutralised with sulphuric acid, evaporated, and then the residue digested with alcohol, which dissolves out the sulphate of the organic base required. The sulphate of the alkaloid may then be decomposed by agitating it with a strong solution of caustic potash and ether, and obtained in a state of purity from the ether which rises to the top.

Non-volatile alkaloids are obtained by powdering or rasping the vegetable, and digesting it in dilute acids. Ammonia, magnesia, or carbonate of soda is added to the filtered liquid; the resulting precipitate is filtered off, and treated with boiling alcohol; the alkaloid crystallises out on cooling, and may be purified by animal charcoal. The

above are general modes of extracting alkaloids, which must be varied for particular purposes.

In the search for an organic base in cases of suspected poisoning by these substances, Stas recommends the adoption of the following method: To the contents of the stomach add twice their weight of concentrated alcohol, then from 10 to 30 grains of tartaric acid, and heat the mixture in a flask to 160° or 170°; allow it to cool completely, and wash the residue with strong alcohol. Evaporate the

filtrate in vacuo, or in a current of air, at a temperature not exceeding 90°, filtering the solution if any fat separates; treat the dry residue with cold absolute alcohol. Evaporate in vacuo. Dissolve the acid residue in a few drops of water, adding hydropotassic or hydrosodic carbonate (bicarbonate), till it ceases to produce effervescence; then agitate with four or five times its bulk of fine ether. When clear, allow a portion of this ethereal solution to evaporate spontaneously in a very dry place. In this way the base is obtained in a state of purity sufficient to allow of its examination by its characteristic reagents. If sulphuric acid be added to the ethereal solution, the sulphates of the following volatile bases may be separated in a crystalline form: Ammonia, tetrylia, nicotylia, aniline, quinoline, and picoline. Conylia sulphate is slightly soluble in ether. Stas states that he has thus successfully isolated morphia, codeia, strychnia, brucia, veratria, emetia, atropia, hyoscyama, aconitina, and colchicine, all of which, when uncombined with acid, are sufficiently soluble in ether to admit of extraction by the foregoing method. Many organic bases are also dissolved by chloroform, which may often be advantageously substituted for ether in Stas's process.

The liquid is filtered, if necessary, and agitated with about one-thirtieth of its bulk of chloroform. The chloroform speedily separates in the form of a heavy oily layer, which

The

can be decanted; it will be found to contain nearly the whole of the base, which may afterwards be purified by the usual methods. following bases are especially soluble in chloroform: Veratria, quinia, brucia, narcotine, atropia, and strychnia; cinchonia is but sparingly soluble, and morphia still less so. The following is a summary of the best known routine process of identification of an alkaloid :

The presence of the alkaloids and their salts, in clear solutions, may be thus determined :

I. (FRESENIUS.)-1. The solution is rendered very slightly alkaline with dilute solution of potassa or soda, added drop by drop.

(a) No precipitate is formed; total absence of the alkaloids. (See 4, below.)

(b) A precipitate is formed; solution of potassa or soda is added, drop by drop, until the liquid exhibits a strong alkaline reaction.

(4) The precipitate redissolves; absence of brucia, cinchonia, narcotina, quina, strychnia, and veratria; probably presence of MORPHIA.

(B) Precipitate does not redissolve, or not completely; probably the presence of one or more of the first six of the above-named alkaloids. The fluid is filtered from the precipitate, mixed with either bicarbonate of soda or of potassa, gently boiled nearly to dryness, and treated with water. If it dissolves completely, absence of morphia; an insoluble residue indicates MORPHIA.

2. The precipitate (1 b, B) is washed with cold distilled water, dissolved in a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid, neutralised with a saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda, and allowed to repose a few hours.*

(a) No precipitate; absence of cinchonia, narcotina, and quina. The solution is gently evaporated nearly to dryness, and treated with cold water. If it dissolves completely, pass on to 4; if there is an insoluble residue, it may contain brucia, strychnia, or veratria. (See 3.)

(b) A precipitate; the filtered fluid is treated as directed at 2 a; the precipitate is washed with cold distilled water, dissolved in a little hydrochloric acid. Ammonia is added in excess, and subsequently a sufficient quantity of ether, agitation being had recourse to.

(A) The precipitate formed by the ammonia redissolves completely in the ether, and the clear liquid separates into two layers; absence of CINCHONIA; probable presence of QUINA or NARCOTINA.

(B) The precipitate produced by the ammonia does not redissolve in the ether, or not completely. Probable presence of CINCHONIA, and perhaps also of quina or narcotina. The filtered liquid may be tested for these alkaloids as at a.

3. The insoluble residuum after the evaporation of the solution 2 a, or of the filtrate 2 b, is now dried in a water-bath, and digested with absolute alcohol.

(a) It dissolves completely; absence of strychnia; probable presence of BRUCIA, QUINA (?) or VERATRIA. The alcoholic solution is evaporated to dryness, and if quina has been already detected, the residue is

* Before setting the glass aside the liquor should be well mixed, and the glass-stirrer vigorously rubbed against the sides of the vessel.

divided into two portions, one of which is tested for brucia, the other for veratria.

(b) It does not dissolve, or not completely. Probable presence of STRYCHNIA, and perhaps also of brucia and veratria. The filtered fluid is divided into two portions, and tested separately as at a.

4. The original liquid (1 a) may contain salicine, a proximate vegetable principle, closely allied to the alkaloids; a portion is boiled with hydrochloric acid for some time; the formation of a precipitate shows the presence of SALICINE. (See 2, below.)*

II. (LAROCQUE and THIBIERGE).-Terchloride of gold is recommended by writers as a more de

cisive test for the alkaloids than the "double chloride of gold and sodium," commonly employed for this purpose. The following are the colours of the precipitates which it produces with the aqueous solution of their salts: BRUCIA, milkbrown, passing into coffee-brown, and lastly chocolate-brown; CINCHONIA, Sulphur-yellow; MORPHIA, yellow, then bluish, and lastly violet. In this last state the gold is reduced, and the precipitate is insoluble in water, alcohol, the caustic alkalies, and sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. It forms with aqua regia, a solution which is precipitated by protosulphate of iron. QUINA, buff-coloured; STRYCHNIA, Canary-yellow; VERATRIA, pale greenishyellow. All these precipitates, with the exception mentioned, are very soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether, and only slightly soluble in water. Those with morphia and brucia are sufficiently marked to prevent these alkaloids from being mistaken for each other, and those with brucia and strychnia are, in a like manner, easily distinguishable.

The best methods of discriminating the poisonous alkaloids in the solid state are(1) Their behaviour with nitric and sulphuric acid; (2) the amount of ammonia they evolve when distilled with an alkaline solution of permanganate of potash; (3) the temperature at which they sublime.

These three methods should always be combined, and they cannot fail to identify the alkaloid.

I. The behaviour of the principal alkaloids with sulphuric and nitric acid may be seen by a glance at the following table (GUY):—