PIMENTO BERRY. Published in Journ. de Chim. Med., i. 210, by M. BONASTRO.

The essential oil of pimento is a mixture of two oils a light and a heavy oil.

The pimento berry is divisible into husk and seed, or seeds proper. The following are the characteristics of the husk: It is thick, and when dry, soft and brittle; it sends off from its inner surface a prolongation which forms a septum, and divides the interior into two parts or cells.

Volatile oil....
Green oil
Solid fat oil
Astringent extract

Gummy extract

Colouring-matter.
Resinous matter

Uncrystallisable sugar
Malic or gallic acid
Lignin......
Saline ashes
Water....
Loss.

are

seen several large cells or receptacles for the essential oil. These are often two or three deep. More internally, numerous stellate cells, attached to and imbedded in cellular tissue, occur. Next to these may be seen bundles of woody fibre and delicate spiral vessels, while the deepest or innermost part of the section consists of cellular tissue only. The two cells formed by the husks are each occupied by a small flattish seed of a dark brown or chocolate colour. If we macerate this, we may succeed, after some little difficulty, in separating two membranes from the surface of the seed. The external of these, very thin and delicate, consists of a single layer of elongated and angular cells. The internal tunic-to which the dark colour of the surface is due-is composed of several layers of large, corrugated, coloured cells. When viewed under the microscope they exhibit the characteristic port-wine tint.

If we divide the seed proper in vertical sections, the following structures are displayed: Running round the outer part of the section is a single layer of large receptacles, the remaining thickness being made up of angular and transparent cells, the cavities of which are filled with numerous well-defined starch granules.

The various structures here mentioned, when the pimento berries are reduced to powder, become disunited, broken up, and intermixed. The port-wine-coloured cells are particularly conspicuous, and afford a character by which the nature of the powder may be at once determined.-(HASSALL.)

As this spice is remarkably cheap, it is not much adulterated, though we occasionally find it sophisticated with mustard husk. This adulteration can be detected by means of the microscope. The structural peculiarities of mustard will be found in the article on that condiment.

Pellicular residue...... Brown flocculi,

Total..

Husks.

Kernels.

Almonds-There are several varieties of almonds. The principal are the seed of the bitter almond tree, Amygdalus communis, var. amara, brought chiefly from Mogadore; Amygdala dulcis, sweet almond, Jordan almonds; the seed of Amygdala communis (the sweet variety), the sweet almond tree, grow. ing in Syria, Persia, also in Northern Africa and in Southern Europe from trees cultivated about Malaga.

From the seeds of Amygdala communis an oil is expressed, Amygdala oleum.

The almond seed is above an inch in length, lanceolate acute, with a clear cinnamon-brown seed-coat, and a sweetish nutty-flavoured kernel; the bitter almond is the smaller of the two. The oil is of a very pale yellow colour, made by expression, and whether obtained from the sweet or bitter variety is the same in properties and composition, being nearly inodorous, or having a nutty odour with an oleaginous taste.

Both varieties of almonds contain about 50 per cent. of the fixed oil, chiefly oleine, an albuminous principle, soluble in water, called emulsine, with sugar, gum, and woody fibre; the bitter variety, in addition to these, possesses a peculiar white crystalline principle, amygdaline (C20H27NO11+3H2O), soluble in water and alcohol, the solutions having a slightly bitter taste. It is to the presence of this body that the peculiar properties of the bitter almond are due, for when amygdaline is acted upon by the emulsine, as occurs on moistening the almond, a species of fermentation ensues, and hydrocyanic acid (HCN) and volatile oil of bitter almonds, or hydride of benzoyl (C7H5OH), are formed, with a little glucose and formic acid, and hence poisonous

CH2NO11+2H,O=CNH+C2H¿O+
2C6H12O6

The volatile oil, when deprived of prussic acid, is not poisonous, and resembles in appearance other volatile oils; it is chiefly composed of hydride of benzoyl (C-H2OH): on exposure it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into benzoic acid (CHO). It is procured by distilling the marc left after the expression of the fixed oil from bitter almonds with water; that sold in shops is intensely poisonous from the

large amount (from 4 to 8 per cent.) of prussic

acid contained in it.

quent presence in bread is a matter of the greatest notoriety. The adulterations of these several articles will be found fully considered under their respective headings.

It is also in some degree a disinfectant, and is used to purify water. The sulphate of alumina has been in this way applied to filters, It exercises a peculiar especially in India. influence on animal bodies, such as cells, animalculæ, &c., which may be compared to a kind of tanning: it thus renders them innocu

ous and inert.

100 drops of oil of almonds are equal to grains of anhydrous acid, or 11 drachms (nearly 13 ounce) of ordinary acid. 100 grains of litter almond pulp are equal to 2 of the oil, or grain of anhydrous acid, or 12 drops of medicinal acid. From 15 to 30 drops of oil of bitter almonds have proved fatal.

Alum-Sulphate of alumina and ammonia crystallised. Its chemical composition may be thus represented - NHAI (SO)1⁄2 12 H.O. A number of other salts may be procured which have the same crystalline form as ammonium alum, forming a remarkable series of isomorphous compounds, a few of which we Lere enumerate:

Potassium alum, KA12SO,12H2O Sodium alum, NaA12SO 12HO Iron alum, KFe2SO 12H2O This salt is occasionally found native in volcanic districts in the form of a white efflorescence produced by the action of the sulphuric acid of the volcano upon the compounds of aluminum and potassium contained in the lava and trachytic rocks; for commercial purposes, however, it is generally manufactured artificially.

It forms transparent, white, regular octahedral crystals, having an acid, sweet, astringent taste; it is slightly efflorescent in air, from the loss of some of its water by crystallisation. It is precipitated by chloride of barium, and by the addition of alkalies and their carbonates, but redissolved by excess of the former.

Alum is used extensively in dyeing, and for the adulteration of several kinds of food. This drug appears to be of especial use to the publican. Alum, in conjunction with other substances, quickly clears gin which has become turbid from the addition of water; to porter it gives the creamy "head" so much prized by lovers of that beverage; and to beer generally a "smack" of age. Nor is it confined to these more humble drinks, but is extensively used to give to port wine the brilliancy looked upon with such favour by the connoisseur.

Aluminum has recently been successfully used for the estimation of nitric acid in water; a complete description of the process will be found in the article on WATER.

Amabele-Amabele consists of crushed

millets. See MILLETS.

Amasi-The natives of Central Africa never make use of new milk until they have first caused it to become sour, by putting it into vessels charged with the remains of former operations; this drink is considered by them far more wholesome than fresh milk. They have given it the name of Amasi.

Ambulance-An ambulance is an hospital in miniature, attached to an army and following its movements. It is a term originally used by the French, but has now taken a place in our own tongue.

The French ambulance is composed of a surgeon-in-chief, an apothecary, a controlling officer, a certain number of assistant-surgeons, assistants, and nurses. It is well provided with surgical instruments and appliances. Every wounded or sick person is received first by the ambulance. After his wounds have been attended to, he is either restored to his corps, or, if the case is serious, transferred to the nearest hospital.

On the battle-field the ambulance is divided into ambulance volante, and dépôt d'ambulance.

The flying ambulance consists of two surgeons, a controlling officer, and of two nurses. Its duties are to promptly aid and convey the sick from the field. A light covered waggon is attached to the ambulance, in which the wounded are placed. The stationary ambulance is established in a shady place, close, if possible, to drinking-water; its site is marked by a red flag, and the wounded are conveyed

to the cover of its tent as quickly as possible by the staff and assistants of the flying ambulance.

The dépôt d'ambulance has 1 principal medical officer, 4 medical officers, 1 purveyor, 2 ward-masters, 10 orderlies, 1 ambulancewaggon complete, 30 mattresses, 30 stretchers, 60 coverlets, 10 sets of furniture, 10 litters, 12 spring carriages.

Ammonia (NH3) = 17.-This substance derives its name from sal-ammoniac, so called from the circumstance of its having been obtained first in Libya, near the temple of Jupiter Ammon. It is also familiarly termed volatile alkali, spirit of hartshorn, &c. Its observed specific gravity is 0.59; boiling-point, -37° F. (-38° C.); melting-point, -103° F. (-75° C.) At the ordinary pressure and temperature ammonia is a gas, but it may be liquefied by exposure to intense cold, or by the pressure of its own atmosphere. It derives its importance, in a sanitary point of view, from its presence and amount in air and water giving a very fair estimate of the purity of these two essentials of life. Whenever moist nitrogenous matters decompose, ammonia is one of the products. It is found in clayey and peaty soils, and in minute quantity in good air and water. There are many chemical bodies formed on the type of ammonia, and it is probable that most of the disgusting odours from sewers, drains, &c., are really stinking ammonias.

In analysis two kinds of ammonia are recognised, both identical in composition, but differing in their mode of origin. They are usually distinguished as AMMONIA and ALBU MINOID AMMONIA. The first is obtained by boiling or evaporating down an organic fluid, and keeping for some time at a temperature of 150° C., with excess of hydrate of potash. The second, on further boiling it with a strong solution of potash and permanganate of potash. There are certain animal fluidsin which the quantity of ammonia yielded by each method bears a certain ratio to the other, which is characteristic as well as the actual amount evolved.

We are

mainly indebted for these facts in their practical application to Professor Wanklyn. In all probability they will in future be found of great utility in the analysis of most animal fluids, e.g., there is no quicker way of estimating the caseine of milk than by turning it into ammonia (see MILK), and there is no easier way of finding minute traces of albumen in urine than by following out the same process.*

The same process may be used to discriminate

the different alkaloids. See ALKALOIDS.

ganate.

The method employed is similar to the ammonia process of water-analysis; but very minute quantities are taken. 5 c.c. of the animal fluid are diluted with 500 c.c. of water, and 5 c.c. of this liquid are put into a flask with a strong solution of hydrate of potash, evaporated down to dryness, and kept at 150° C. for some time, then some solution of alkaline permanganate is added, and the different portions of the distillate are estimated by the Nessler test. (See WATER, ANALYSIS OF.) The following apparatus is convenient (fig. 6): a is a small flask with a lateral tube, which is fitted to b, the tube of a Liebig's condenser g, by means of a cork; it is heated by means of a spermaceti bath x, the temperature being regulated by a thermometer h, and the distillate is received in a flask i. This appara tus, by the use of a little larger flask, is also the most convenient for the distillation of beer and wine, as well as for the contents of the stomach in the case of the volatile poisons, e.g., prussic acid.

Ammonia exists in air in minute quantity (see AIR), as well as in every kind of natural water. See WATER.

The tests for ammonia are as follow: Free ammonia in a liquid is expelled by boiling, and, if the vapour is condensed, it will give a coloration if in small quantity; if in large, a precipitate with the Nessler test. (See NESSLER.) Free ammonia in a solution of iodine in iodide of potash forms, if in some quantity, the explosive black iodide of nitrogen. If a saturated solution of arsenious acid is mixed with a solution of nitrate of silver (strength 2 per cent.), a trace of ammonia causes the formation of a yellow triargentic arsenite. Free alkalies and alkaline earths do the same, so they must be known to be absent before applying the test. Ammonia salts give off free ammonia on boiling with caustic potash. Ammonia is estimated by the colo

caustic potash and permanganate, and then determining the alkalinity of the resulting liquid in the usual way. Most of the salts of ammonia in commerce are now obtained from the refuse liquid at the gas-works.

Amygdaline-See ALMONDS.

Analysis-This term, used in a general sense, means the resolution of anything, whether an object of the senses or of the intellect, into its component parts; in chemistry, the resolution of a compound body into its constituent parts or elements. Analysis is divided by chemists into two great classes - qualitative and quantitative analysis. By qualitative analysis, merely the nature of a compound is known; thus, for instance, that chlorate of potash contains chloric acid and potassium: by quantitative analysis, not alone the quality, but also the quantity, of the component parts is known; for instance, the exact amount by weight of caseine, water, sugar, ash, and fat that make up 100 parts of milk is an example of quantitative analysis.

For success in analysis, knowledge of the theory and a considerable amount of practice of chemistry is required. Most chemical cperations, especially those of a quantitative nature, require, besides great patience and skill, often no small leisure. The essential instruments of the laboratory are-(1) a balance to weigh to a milligramme; (2) weights of the most accurate kind (a somewhat indifferent balance may be made to answer, provided good weights are employed); (3) good measuring instruments, such as graduated burettes, flasks, &c.; (4) beakers, evaporating dishes, retorts, &c. ; (5) a supply of gas and water; (6) one or two platinum dishes. With such a supply, and provided with stands, holders, flasks, and so on, nearly any ordinary analysis may be performed. Full infor

mation on the principal analytical operations that are required by health officers and analysts will be found under the different headings. See especially MILK, WATER, BREAD, &c.

Analyst, Appointment of-See ADUL

TERATION.

Anchovies-Various kinds of fish are sub

stituted for the true or Gorgona anchovy, but before we consider the numerous adulterations to which this favourite delicacy is subjected, we give a description of this fish.

the

Generic Characters. - Distinguished from herring, in having the head pointed; the upper jaw the longer, the mouth deeply divided; the opening extended backwards behind the line of the eyes; the ans in advance of the line of the commencement of gape branchial apertures very large; the ventral the dorsal; abdomen smooth; branchiostegous rays, twelve.

I have followed Dr. Fleming in preserving to the anchovy the old name by which it was formerly known. It was called Lycostomus, from the form of its mouth; and Engraulis encrasicolus, because from its bitterness it was supposed to carry its gall in its

head. For this reason the head as well as the entrails

are removed when the fish is pickled.

The anchovy is immediately recognised among the species of the family to which it belongs by its sharp-pointed head, with the upper jaw considerably the longer. The length of the head compared with the length of the body alone, is as one to three; the depth of the body about two-thirds the length of the head, and compared to the length of dorsal fin arises half-way between the point of the the whole fish is as one to seven; the first ray of the

nose and the end of the fleshy portion of the tail; the third ray of the dorsal fin, which is the longest, is of the same length as the base of the fin; the pectoral