has passed the anemometer, 500 revolutions are registered by the instrument. fin small; the ventral fins arise in a vertical line in advance of the commencement of the dorsal fin, which is over the space between the ventral and anal fins; the base of the anal fin is as long as the distance from its commencement to the origin of the ventral fins ; the rays short; the tail deeply forked. The fin-rays in number are-D. 14; P. 15; V. 7; perfectly calm day, for the distance of a mile A. 18; C. 19. The breadth of the eye is one-fifth of the length of the whole head; the peculiarity in the comparative length of the jaws has been previously noticed; the gill-covers are elongated; the scales of the body large and deciduous; the colour of the top of the head and back blue, with a tinge of green; irides, gill-covers, sides, and belly, silvery white; the fins delicate in structure, and greenish white; the membranes connecting the rays almost transparent. From four to five inches is the ordinary size, but many as large as seven inches and a half have been taken in the Cornish seas.-(YARRELL'S British Fishes.) The adulterations practised are principally the substitution of inferior fish for the true anchovy, and the addition of colouring-matters to the brine or liquor in which they are preserved. True anchovies come over here in barrels, preserved in strong brine, and then they are bottled by the wholesale pickle merchants. In the preserving liquor Armenian bole and Venetian red have been found. Dutch, French, Sicilian fish, sardines, and even sprats have been substituted for the true anchovy; it is only by a perfect acquaintance with the characters of the fish that these frauds can be detected. It must be remembered that the process of preserving will considerably modify the appearance of the anchovy, for the head, intestines, scales, and pectoral fins will have been removed; the principal points of guidance are then the colour of the flesh, the size of the fish, and the number of dorsal, caudal, and anal rays. And with regard to the latter, Dr. Hassall declares, when preserved, that as many as sixteen dorsal, nineteen anal, and twenty-six caudal rays may be counted. Anemometer (anemos, the wind, and metron, a measure) - An instrument for measuring the force of the wind. There are different sorts, some measuring the velocity, others the pressure, and some again of a very delicate construction, used for estimating the ventilation of public buildings. For measuring the velocity of the wind a hemispherical cup anemometer, invented by Mr. Robinson, is generally considered the simplest and the best. Two horizontal rods of iron cross each other at right angles, and are supported on a vertical axis, which turns freely; to the ends of these two horizontal rods four cups or hemispheres are screwed. These cups, when placed in the wind, revolve, and the arms are of such a length that when a mile of wind Should any doubt be entertained regarding the accuracy of the machine, it may be tested by rapidly conveying it through the air on a and back again, and noting the number of revolutions registered. An endless screw, on an upright axis, sets in motion a system of index-wheels, by which the number of revolutions made in a given time is shown and read in the same way as a gas-meter. To find the number of miles travelled during a day, hour, or any specified time, it is only necessary to multiply the revolutions registered during that time by 2, and divide by 1000. To ascertain the rate of the wind per hour, observe the revolutions and divide by 1000; e.g., suppose 800 revolu made, say in two minutes, multiply by 60, tions were made in two minutes, the velocity of the wind would be at the rate of 48 miles per hour. To learn the force or pressure which the wind exerts, it is necessary to use an Ostler's anemometer, or a Lind's wind-gauge. Ostler's instrument is of simple construction. It conspiral spring, to which an index showing the sists of a plate a foot square, acting on a degree of pressure is attached. The plate is kept perpendicular to the wind by a vane. The pressure given in pounds avoirdupois on clockwork on a piece of paper, fitted on a the square inch is registered by means of turning drum. half an inch in diameter, in the form of a Lind's wind-gauge consists of a tube about siphon, one end of it being bent so as to face the wind. It turns freely on a vertical axis, and a vane keeps the mouth of it directed to the wind. It is half-filled with water, and when the wind blows into the mouth of the instrument it drives the water up the other leg, to which a scale showing the pressure is attached. The zero of the scale is the level at which the water stands when the air is calm. It may also be made to measure maximum gusts of wind by filling into the tube a chemical solution, which colours bits of prepared paper, placed at different levels on the scale limb of the instrument. For ascertaining the ventilation of public buildings, &c., Combe's instrument should be used. Combe's anemometer is also one of the best to ascertain the velocity of currents of air. It is made of metal, with four small mica sails, like the sails of a little windmill, which turn on an axis, furnished with an endless screw, and supported on two copper uprights. This, again, turns various toothed wheels, two of which have plates showing the number of, a position to make successful experiments, an revolutions performed by each; and there are iron tunnel, of which the section is known, is two small needles, which travel round circles, made, which is placed upon the banks of a properly divided. From zero, upwards, these canal, when care must be taken that the outneedles register the observations. Two threads, side air does not pass into the anemometer held by the experimenter, engage or disen- without passing through it. To effect this, gage the wheels, so that it can be stopped or there is placed exactly in the centre of the set going at pleasure. In order to make an tunnel a platinum plate, which acts as a wall, anemetrical observation, the two needles are where it is fastened by a screw. The two placed at zero; and, to make the operation threads ought always to be on the outside, quicker, the anemometer can be disengaged, and be perfectly free in their movements. If so that the wheels can be stopped at zero the observer takes one of these threads in instantly. To make the observations exact, each hand, the mill stops. An assistant holds it is necessary to place the anemometer in a a watch in his hands; if it does not mark the well of a certain depth, and perfectly regular, minutes, he must observe the exact moment when the swiftness of the currents can be the needle passes one of the divisions, and he measured. Without these precautions the then gives the signal to disengage the mill, by current of air is subject to contractions and pulling one of the threads. As the needle irregularities, which are opposed to all certain marks the wished-for number of minutes, he results. When there is a difficulty in finding again gives the signal, by pulling the other vations with an anemometer, which he has constructed on the principle of M. Combe's; but he has added two enamelled dials, two needles joined to cups, a third minute-wheel, and an indicator, by which 500,000 turns may be observed, and the number of turns of the mill determined in the interval. This arrangement also gives prolonged observations, and includes fractions, at equal intervals, making errors almost impossible. thread, and the mill stops. The anemometer is then taken from the tunnel, and the result is easily read on the dial, counting from zero. If the second wheel has advanced three teeth, and the first from the twelfth division, the anemometer shows 312 turns. Where two observations are made, the experiments should be made again. If it is shown that there is a variation-that is to say, when the needle is stopped by a spring, the observer puts this needle upon 12, and, at the moment when it stops, he orders the anemometer to be disengaged, and at the end of two or three minutes he stops it. To deduct the real velocity of the currents of air from the number of turns observed, a special instrument is employed, "The object of this little instrument is to on the outside of which is a very simple form give correct means of measuring the velocity - representing the number of turns ob- of currents of air passing through coal and served, and v the velocity of the air. other mines, and the ventilating spaces of General Morin has made numerous obser- hospitals and other public buildings. A modification of this instrument was suggested by Dr. Parkes, the result being a very handy air-meter, known as "Casella's " (fig. 7). The manufacturer's description of it is as follows: "It was first constructed for Dr. Parkes, | of the solutions. Aniline produces a white F.R.S., of the Royal Victoria Hospital, Net-precipitate in a solution of corrosive sublimate, ley, for measuring the state of ventilation in and a green crystalline precipitate in one of that large military establishment. cupric chloride. "The graduations for each instrument are obtained by actual experiment by means of machinery made for the purpose, so that the indications of all are as comparable with each other as the weight or measure of ordinary substances. "The indications are shown by means of the large dial and hand, and five smaller ones, as shown in the annexed plate. The whole circumference of the large dial is divided into 100 parts, and represents the number of feet up to 100 traversed by the current of air. The five smaller dials are each divided into ten parts only, one revolution of each being equal to ten of the preceding dial, and representing 1000, 10,000, 100,000, 1,000,000, and 10,000,000 respectively. By means of the large dial, the low velocity of fifty feet per minute may be measured, and by the smaller ones continuous registration is extended up to 10,000,000 feet, or equal to 1893 miles, being practically beyond what the most extended observations can require, whilst jewelling in the most sensitive parts ensures the utmost delicacy of action. "By moving the small catch a backwards or forwards, the work is put in or out of gear, without affecting the action of the fans; this prevents the injurious effect of stopping them suddenly, and enables the observer to begin or end his observations to a second. A small handle with universal joint accompanies the instrument, and may be screwed in at the base; by putting a stick through this, it may be raised or lowered to any required height, and used in any position. "A simple table accompanies each air-meter, by means of which (in strict observations) allowance may be made for the difference caused by inertia at high and low velocities." Aniline (Kyanol, Phenylamine, Phenylia, Crystalline, or Benzidam), (CH,,H,N), or (C12H,N=93)-Sp. gr. of liquid, 1020, of vapour, 3-210. This base may be prepared from several sources, and by a variety of reactions, and it is contained in small quantity among the product of destructive distillation of coal in the process of gas-making. Aniline is a nearly colourless limpid liquid, of an agreeable vinous odour, and an aromatic burning taste. It is very acrid and poisonous. When exposed to the air it rapidly absorbs oxygen. Most of the salts of aniline readily crystallise. With chromic acid, the salts of aniline strike a green, blue, or black colour, according to the degree of concentration Nitrobenzol is converted into aniline by sulphide of ammonium, sulphuretted hydrogen being decomposed whilst sulphur is deposited. The poisonous properties of nitrobenzol depend on aniline, which it is capable of being converted into by the animal organism. Dr. Letheby was the first to call attention to this substance as a poison, from several cases which had come under his observation, and it is to that gentleman that the method of its elimination and identification is due. He considers nitrobenzol to be a powerful narcotic poison, attended, when taken internally, or even inhaled, with drowsiness, convulsions, and coma. Several days may sometimes elapse before its fatal termination. When death is rapid, the smell of nitrobenzol is perceptible in every tissue of the body; but in lingering cases, no smell is observable, it having been converted into aniline, the colouring effects of which are sometimes recognised in the skin, gums, lips, and nails. To extract the poison, Dr. Letheby directs the matters to be bruised in a mortar, with a little distilled water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, and then distilled from a retort, nitrobenzol passes over into the receiver unchanged, and can be detected by the bitter almond-like smell; the residue in the retort is treated with strong alcohol to extract the sulphate of aniline; the alcoholic solution is treated with acetate of lead to precipitate organic matter, and the excess of lead separated by sulphate of soda; the filtered solution is next treated with caustic potash, and distilled to dryness in an oil bath. The distillate contains the aniline, which is detected by the nascent oxygen of a galvanic battery thus: A drop or so of the solution of aniline in 1000 of dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 7 of water) is placed on a clean piece of platinum foil and touched with the negative pole of a galvanic battery (a single Grove's cell), whilst the positive pole is in contact with the platinum plate. The liquid instantly acquires a bluish tint, then a violet, changing to pinkthe colour being more intense when the aniline solution is stronger. Men employed in works where aniline is extensively used are sometimes subject to symptoms of poisoning, such as neuralgia, giddiness, and insensibility, from inhaling it; and the contact of aniline colours with the skin is said occasionally to produce a peculiar eruption. Annatto-This article, although not used as food, is yet added to several articles of consumption. It is the colouring - matter obtained from the seeds of a plant named Biza Orellana, and which forms the type of the small natural order Bixinca. Annatto is chiefly prepared in Brazil and Cayenne. The colouring-matter is situated on the outside of the seeds, which are enclosed in pods, and is of two kinds an orange-coloured, strongly tinctorial resin called bixin (C16H12O), associated with a yellow one called orellin. Bixin is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, the fixed oils, and the alkalies; when in solution by an alkali, on addition of an acid, it falls as an orange precipitate. Upon this fact is based the method of purifying it. The commercial annatto is dissolved in an alkaline liquid, e.g., a solution of pearl-ash; dilute sulphuric acid is added to neutralisation, and the resulting precipitate collected. Genuine commercial annatto consists of 28 per cent. of resinous colouring-matter, and 20 per cent. of extractive matter. Characters, Microscopical and Chemical. When annatto is examined by the microscope, the outer red portion presents an almost homogeneous appearance, and the surface of the seed proper consists of narrow or elongated cells or fibres vertically disposed, while the inner white portion consists of cells filled with starch corpuscles, well defined, of medium size, and resembling in the elongated and stellate hilum the starch granules of the pea and bean. When the annatto is manufactured, and an unadulterated sample is examined, but little structure is met with. Portions of the outer cells may be seen; and in those specimens, which in the course of their preparation have not been subjected to the action of boiling water, a few starch granules may be noticed. Dyers, soapmakers, and painters use annatto. The two former frequently purchase it in the state in which it is imported, adding the alkali as a solvent when they use it. In these cases it does not pass through the socalled English manufacturer's hands at all. Since annatto, when manufactured, presents so few evidences of structure, by means of the microscope we can easily detect the presence of most foreign vegetable substances, such as turmeric powder, the starch of wheat, rye, barley, and sago flours. The salt and alkali present in the annatto generally greatly alter the appearance of the turmeric. Most of the colouring-matter of the cells is discharged, so that the starch corpuscles contained within them become visible. Loose starch granules of turmeric may also be frequently seen, and in consequence of the action of the alkali much enlarged. The microscopic characters of turmeric powder, wheat, rye, barley, and sago starch will be found fully described under their respective names. Annatto is used also to colour milk, butter, and cheese. Dr. John found the pulp surrounding the fresh seed to consist of 28 parts of colouring resinous matter, 26 5 of vegetable gluten, 20 of ligneous fibre, 20 of colouring extractive matter, 4 formed of matters analogous to vegetable extractive, and a trace of spicy and acid matters. The colouring-matter is soluble in alkalies and alcohol, less so in water. Annatto is adulterated to an extraordinary extent, and this adulteration is of the grossest possible description. In fact, there is scarcely an article we are acquainted with that is so largely and so generally tampered with. The substances are numerous, some organic, others inorganic. The organic substances used are turmeric, rye, barley, and wheat flours. The inorganic ones are sulphate of lime, carbonate of lime, salt, alkali, an oily substance (probably soap), red ferruginous earths, mostly Venetian red, red-lead, and copper. When large quantities of flour and lime are used, the colour of the annatto is so reduced that it becomes necessary to use salt, alkalies, and the red earths to restore it to its original standard. Salt heightens the intensity of vegetable reds, hence its use. Lead is probably introduced into the annatto through the Venetian red used. Copper is added to prevent the annatto becoming attacked by fungi. The extent to which annatto is adulterated will be shown by the following fact. On examination of thirty-four samples of annatto of various kinds, as imported and obtained from English manufacturers, and as purchased from dealers, two only were found genuine. As annatto is used to colour different articles of diet, when adulterated its use may often prove detrimental to health. Accum, Mitchell, Bernays, Normandy, and Hassall appear to have detected in cheese, adulterated with annatto, sufficient red-lead to cause injurious effects to ensue from eating it; but from recent investigations, it would seem extremely doubtful whether red-lead is now employed to the extent they state. Annatto, after being kept some time, becomes attacked by maggots. In order to estimate the commercial value, and detect adulteration in a sample, the quickest and best way is the following: Weigh accurately a gramme in a small platinum dish; dry in the water-bath for a couple of hours, then weigh: the loss is the water. Finely powder and digest it for some hours in alcohol; then boil, filter, and treat with successive portions of alcohol, until all the colouring-matter is dissolved; filter, evaporate the filtrate down, and weigh: the result is the resin. The insoluble portion will, in a good commercial specimen, consist of woody matter, extractive, gluten, &c. For the ash, weigh another gramme in a platinum dish; dry for a short time over the water-bath; then powder and burn until it ceases to lose weight. It is prudent to fuse a little on charcoal, with carbonate of soda, before the blow-pipe, before burning it in a platinum vessel, as there may be lead in the annatto. The ash should then be submitted to the various reagents in order to detect lime, iron, alumina, &c. &c. If the ash is not excessive, and the resin about 28 per cent., it is a fair specimen. A correct determination of ash and resin is all that is required to definitely pronounce on the purity or impurity of the sample. The following is an analysis of a fair commercial sample by the author. No. 1. The sample was in the form of a paste, colour deep red, odour peculiar but not disagreeable: Water.... Resinous colouring-matter.. Starch and extractive matter.. 24-2 28.8 22.5 24.5 100-0 Thus, in the one the resin was 28 per cent., the ash 22; in the other the resin was only 11 per cent., the ash no less than 48. Antidote-In medicine, toxicology, &c., a substance administered to counteract or lessen the effects of poison. The principal poisons, with their antidotes, are noticed under their respective heads. Antidotes may be divided into direct and indirect antidotes: the former neutralising or destroying the injurious action of the poison on meeting it in the system; the latter counteracting the injurious physiological effects of the drug. The following list gives the most important antidotes to the chief poisons:Direct Antidotes. Antidotes. Magnesia, chalk, and dilute solu tions of alkaline carbonates. Vinegar-and-water, and oil. ..Finely-divided animal charcoal. Antimony.............Preparations containing tannin in solution, as decoction of cinchona. Alkaloids Liq. potassa. Belladonna.. Henbane Stramonium Strychnine........... Perhaps monobromated camphor. Antiseptic-An epithet applied to anything which impedes or arrests putrefaction, e.g., cold, heat, chlorine, iodine, sulphur, carbolic acid, tar, alum, salt, nitre, alcohol, vinegar, &c. See DISINFECTANTS. Antozone-See OZONE. Appeals-The power of appeal is amply provided for by the Sanitary Acts. Any person on whom an order of prohibition, or an order requiring the execution of structural works, is made, may appeal to Quarter Sessions, pending which decision there is no liability to penalty, nor shall the work or proceedings be gone on with (P. H., s. 99). Any person feeling himself aggrieved by any rate made under the provisions of the Public Health Act, or by any order, conviction, judgment, or determination of any matter done by any court of summary jurisdiction, in cases in which the sum or penalty adjudged exceeds twenty shillings, may appeal to Quarter Sessions. In all the above cases the following conditions must be observed: The appeal must be made to the next Quarter Sessions, holden not less than twentyone days after the decision of the authority or court from which the appeal is made. The appellant must give notice to the other party and to the court or authority from which he appeals, within fourteen days after the cause of appeal has arisen, stating his intention to appeal, and the grounds thereof. The appellant shall, immediately after such notice, enter into a recognisance before a justice of the peace, with two sufficient sureties, conditioned personally to try such appeal, to abide the judgment of the court thereon, and to pay such costs as may be awarded by the court, or give such other security by deposit of money or otherwise as the justice may allow. If the appellant is in custody, the justice may, if he think fit, release him on giving similar security. |