sion to warn his countrymen against the designs of Philip, and to urge a stricter union between the Grecian states in opposition to Philip. In 351 B.C. Demosthenes, being then thirty-three years of age, delivered the first of the great speeches known as the "Philippics," from their being specially directed against Philip; the third Philippic was delivered ten years later, but between these dates he delivered several other speeches, such as the "Olynthiacs"-of hardly less importance. Matters came to a crisis in 338 B.C., when the combined forces of Athens and Thebes were routed at Charoneia by Philip and his young son Alexander. Demosthenes was one of the Athenian commanders, and fled back to Athens with the remnant of the forces.

He met at home with a reception which was hardly to have been expected. He was chosen to deliver the funeral oration over those who had fallen at Charoneia and was charged with the duty of superintending the fortifications of the city, upon which an immediate attack was apprehended. But there was a strong faction by which he was bitterly assailed. The leader of this faction was Æschines, the professional rival, and personal and political enemy of Demosthenes. To bring the question between Demosthenes and

schines to an issue, several months after the defeat at Charoneia, one Ctesiphon introduced into the Senate a proposition for giving to Demosthenes a public testimonial in the form of a golden crown, or rather wreath; and that this should take place in the theatre. The resolution passed the

Senate, but it had to be submitted to the popular Assembly. Æschines denounced this as an illegal proposition, and brought an indictment to that effect against Ctesiphon. Technically, the proposition was an illegal one; for it was contrary to the laws of Athens to confer such an honor upon any public officer while his accounts were yet unaudited; and moreover the honor must be proclaimed, not in the theatre, but in the Pnyx, or open-air meeting-place of the people.

For some unexplained reason the trial of Ctesiphon was delayed for eight years. It at length came on in 330 B.C. The defendant was nominally Ctesiphon, but was actually Demosthenes; the real question at issue being whether the official conduct of Demosthenes had been such as to entitle him to the proposed public honor. The prosecution was conducted by Eschines; Demosthenes, though nominally appearing as the counsel for Ctesiphon, conducting his own defence. The speeches on both sides have come down to us, and are by common consent pronounced to be the most notable examples of Grecian oratory. The result of the trial was the utter discomfiture of Æschines. The jury consisted of 1,500 members. Of these less than 500 voted for Æschines. According to Athenian law a prosecutor who failed to gain the votes of one-fifth of the jury was himself liable to punishment for malicious prosecution. Eschines fled from Athens, and took refuge in Rhodes, where he taught oratory with great success for more than fifteen years.

For six years after his triumph over Æschines

Demosthenes took no part in public affairs-indeed, strictly speaking, there were no public affairs to be conducted in Athens. In 324 B.C. Alexander of Macedon came back to Babylonia after his great expedition to India. He had left. one Harpalus as satrap in Babylonia. This man heaped up immense riches by every kind of extortion; he had also made favor with the Athenians, to whom he fled, dreading the vengeance of Alexander. It is said that he brought with him treasure to the amount of 5,000 talents. He soon found it advisable to quit Athens, leaving, it is said, 720 talents, which was deposited in the public treasury. When the money came to be counted. there were only 350 talents to be found. It was believed that much if not all the missing money had found its way as bribes into the hands of public men and orators, among whom Demosthenes was named. The Areopagus instituted an investigation, one result of which was that 20 talents were reported to have been received by Demosthenes, who was sentenced to pay a fine of 50 talents-equivalent to some $300,000 in our day. It is impossible at this day to decide with any reasonable certainty as to the guilt or innocence of Demosthenes in this matter. Eminent historians like Thirlwall and Grote think that the weight of evidence is in favor of his innocence. Not paying his fine, he was imprisoned, but soon made his escape and took refuge in the territory of Argos, whence he was recalled a few months after, upon the death of Alexander.

Demosthenes met with an enthusiastic reception

on his return to Athens. An attempt, in which he bore a leading part, was made to unite the Grecian states into a great confederacy against Antipater, who had succeeded to the government of Macedonia. The confederates were defeated at the battle of Cranon, 322 B.C. Antipater took possession of Athens, and demanded the rendition of Demosthenes, who had taken refuge in the temple of Poseidon, on the little island of Calauria. Feeling assured that the inviolability of this sanctuary would not be respected, he took poison, which he carried about on his person. He then dragged himself outside the sacred inclosure, so that it might not be polluted by a death within its walls. He thus died at the age of sixty-two.

There are extant sixty orations attributed to Demosthenes; though the authenticity of several of them has been questioned from very early times. The greatest of these is that "Upon the Crown," delivered in his fiftieth year. This oration has been translated into English by many persons-among whom are Leland, Kennedy, Collier, Brandt, and Brougham. Our extracts are taken from the translation of Brougham-himself, like Demosthenes, famous as a lawyer, a statesman, and an orator.

EXORDIUM TO THE ORATION ON THE CROWN.

Let me begin, men of Athens, by imploring of all the heavenly powers that the same kindly sentiments which I have throughout my public life cherished toward this county and each of you, may now be shown toward me in the present contest. Next, I beseech them, to grant, what so nearly concerns yourselves, your religion, and

VOL. VIII.-3

your reputation, that you may not take counsel of my adversary touching the course to be pursued in hearing my defence that would indeed be hard!—but that you may regard the laws and your oaths, which, among so many other just rules, lay down this-that both sides shall be equally heard. Nor does this merely import that no one shall be prejudiced, or that equal favor shall be extended to both parties; it also implies that each antagonist shall have free scope in pursuing whatever method and line of procedure he may be pleased to prefer.

Upon the present occasion, Athenians, as in many things, so especially in two of great moment, Æschines has the advantage of me. One is, that we have not the same interests at stake; it is by no means the same thing for me to forfeit your esteem, and for him to fail in his impeachment. That to me indeed-but I would fain not to take so gloomy a view in the outset. Yet he certainly brings his charge, an unprovoked volunteer. My other disadvantage is, that all men are naturally prone to take pleasure in listening to invective and accusation, and to be disgusted with those who praise themselves. To him, therefore, falls the part which ministers to your gratification, while to myself is only left that which, I may say, is distasteful to all. And yet, if from such apprehensions I were to avoid the subject of my own conduct, I should appear to be without defence against his charges, and without proof that my honors were well earned; although I cannot go over the ground of my councils and my measures without speaking oftentimes of myself. This, therefore, I shall endeavor to do with all moderation; while the blame of my dwelling on topics indispensable to my defence must justly rest upon him who has instituted an impeachment of such a kind. But at least I think I may reckon upon all of you, my judges, admitting that the question concerns me as much as Ctesiphon, and justifies on my part an equal anxiety; for to be stripped of any possession, and more especially by an enemy, is grievous and hard to bear, but worst of all thus to lose your confidence and esteem-of all my possessions the most precious.