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ance for any voter, for the purpose of polling at an election, but not to pay any money, or give any valuable consideration to a voter for or in respect of his travelling expenses for such purpose." By ss. 2 & 4, election auditor not to act as election agent, nor receive above £20 in the whole as first fee and further commission from each candidate.

A further effort was made in 1863 to avert corrupt pracctices at elections, by 26 V. c. 22. By s. 2, except in respect of personal expenses, no payment or advance, loan, or deposit by a candidate is to be made otherwise than through authorized agents, whose names and addresses have been declared in writing to the returning officer on or before the day of nomination. Any such payment or advance is a misdemeanor, or, in Scotland, punishable by fine and imprisonment. Names and addresses of agents to be published by returning officer on or before day of election. All bills of charges or claims on candidate to be sent in to agent within one month from declaration of day of election, or right to recover barred, s. 3. A detailed statement of election expenses, with bills and vouchers signed by agent, to be delivered to the returning officer within two months, and at the expense of the candidate an abstract of such statement to be published in local newspaper. Penalty for default by candidate or agents, £5 each day. Furnishing an untrue statement a misdemeanor. Bill and vouchers to be open to inspection of voters for six months after election on payment of 18. Witness before an election committee or commission not excused answering question relative to corrupt practices on the ground that such answer may criminate himself; but witness entitled to be protected by certificate from the clerk of the committee, or given under the hands of the commission, against any ulterior proceedings against him, s. 7.

VI. MODE OF TRANSACTING BUSINESS IN PARLIAMENT.

The method of doing business is much the same in both houses. Each house has its speaker; the speaker of the lords is usually the lord chancellor; the speaker of the commons is chosen by the house, but must be approved by the queen. The speaker of the commons decides on questions of form or modes of procedure, but cannot give his opinion on any legislative subject before the house; the speaker of the lords, however, if a lord of parliament, may give his opinion. In both houses a majority binds the whole, and this majority is given publicly and openly.

When an act of parliament of a private nature is wished for, to empower individuals to undertake any work of public utility (notice in the Gazette and the other forms prescribed by the house having first been complied with), a petition is presented by a member, which is either referred to a committee to examine the matter, or, on the petition itself, if not opposed, leave is given to

bring in a bill. If the matter is of a public nature, the bill is admitted without a petition, on the motion of a member. The hil is drawn out on paper, with a number of blanks and spaces for insertions and alterations. It is read a first time, and, some little time after, a second. After each reading, the speaker explains the substance of the bill, and puts the question-Whether it shall proceed any further?

After a second reading it is committed, that is, referred to a committee, either private or of the whole house. A committee of the whole house is composed of every member, and to form it, the speaker quits the chair, and may give his opinion as a private member; another member being appointed chairman, or the chair is taken by the chairman of ways and means. In the committee the bill is discussed clause by clause, amendments made, the blanks filled up, and sometimes the bill entirely new-modelled. When the opinion of the house has been taken on each clause and amendment, the bill is ordered to be engrossed, that is, written out in a strong band on a roll of parchment. This done, it is read a third time, when, if a new clause be added, it is done by tacking a separate piece of parchment to the bill, which is called a rider. The speaker then again opens the contents, and holding it up in his hand, puts the question-Whether it shall pass?

If agreed to it is carried to the bar of the lords by a deputation of members for their concurrence, where it passes through similar forms, and, if agreed to by them, it waits the royal assent; if rejected, no notice is taken, to prevent altercation. If the lords make any amendment to it, it is sent down again to the commons for their concurrence. Should the commons object to the amendment, a conference is held between members deputed by each house to adjust the difference. Where both parties remain indexible, the bill is dropped. A bill introduced, and rejected, cannot be introduced a second time during the same session of parliament. Similar forms are observed when a bill begins in the House of Lords.

In 1858, by 21 & 22 V. c. 78, the committees of both houses are enabled to administer oaths to witnesses in certain cases, so that the evidence taken before a committee of either house on a private hill, is available, if desired, before the other house to which the bill is referred. For this purpose, by ss. 1 and 2, the committees of the commons on private bills may examine witnesses on oath, and the lords also may examine witnesses on oath, in lieu of such witnesses being, as heretofore, sworn at the bar of the house.

In the commons the speaker has a casting vote in case of an equality of votes; but, in the lords, the speaker's vote is counted with the rest of the house; and in case of an equality of votes the non-contents, or negatives, are considered the majority.

As to the origin of bills: with the crown originates all bills of amnesty; with the lords all bills relating to divorces, or restitu

tion in blood or of honours; with the commons all bills relating to the public income and expenditure, and all other measures that can properly come within the class of money bills. Bills affecting the royal prerogatives are not usually introduced into either house without the previous consent of the crown. It is considered unconstitutional for one house to take the initiative in any measure affecting the privileges of the other. In general it is held that in the lords should originate bills of pains and penalties, or other measures founded upon oral testimony, as their lordships, unlike the commons, have the power of examining witnesses upon oath.

In common with courts of law, the houses of parliament can punish all contempt of their authority, or disobedience to their mandates. Each house is armed with power to repress any aggression upon their rights or any interference with their privileges; but the operation of this power is limited to the session or duration of parliament, committals to prison by either being usually terminated by a prorogation or dissolution; but the lords may imprison beyond the end of the session (May on Parl. 71). Either house can delegate to a committee the power of sending for papers, and of enforcing the attendance of necessary witnesses.

Committees are, first, those of the whole house, which may be for the special consideration of certain resolutions concerning which some doubt exists; or the house resolves itself into such committee to consider the details of a bill, the principle of which may be discussed at any or all of its other stages; or there may be committees for financial purposes, as those of supply, or ways and means. Secondly, there are select committees chosen by ballot or otherwise for some specific purpose-the numbers composing such bodies seldom exceed twenty or thirty members; occasionally these are declared committees of secrecy. Thirdly, election committees which are judicial tribunals, appointed to try the merits of controverted elections. When the whole house is in committee, the speaker vacates the chair, the mace is placed under the table, and some other member is called on to preside, who sits in the seat of the senior clerk. For committees of supply of ways and means, there is a chairman who receives a salary.

A conference may be either for the communication of resolutions, or it may be a species of negotiation between the two houses, conducted by managers appointed on both sides, for the purpose of producing concurrence, in cases where mutual consent is necessary; or for the purpose of reconciling differences which may have arisen. If the conference be upon the subject of a bill depending between the two houses, it must be demanded by that house which, at the time of asking the conference, is in possession of the bill. It is the sole privilege of the lords to name the time and place for holding a conference, no matter by which house it may have been demanded. Reasons in writing for the course resolved to be taken are usually furnished to the managers on both sides; in which case

it is simply called "a conference." Should this proceeding fail, a "free conference" must be held, which gives an opportunity for the managers individually, and unrestrained by any precise form of argument, to urge such reasons as in their judgment may best tend to influence the house to which they are addressed. A free conference is usually demanded after two conferences have been bolden without effect. After one free conference none other but free conferences can be held touching the same subject. At all conferences, the managers on the part of the upper house are seated and wear their hats; those for the commons stand uncovered. The speaker quits the chair of the house during the absence of managers attending a conference.

During the session the House of Commons mostly sits five days weekly for the despatch of business; the House of Lords not so often. By the regulations of 1833 (since altered), the commons agreed to meet every day except Saturday, at 12 o'clock, for private business and petitions, and to sit till three, unless the business should sooner he disposed of. At this early meeting twenty members instead of forty to form a house; and a quarter past five o'clock, instead of four, was fixed for the house assembling in the evening. It was also resolved that a select committee should in future be appointed at the commencement of each session to classify all petitions presented to the house, and to order the printing of such of them at length, or in abstract, as appeared to them to require it. Measures were also adopted for obtaining and publishing authentic lists of divisions.

Discussions generally arise on a motion being made by a member, seconded by another, and then put from the chair in the shape of a question; on each of these every member is entitled to be heard once, but he may rise again to explain, and the member who originates the motion is entitled to a reply. In committee the restrictions on speaking are removed.

When a motion has been made upon which the house is unwilling to come to a vote, there are formal modes of avoiding a decision; among which are, "passing to the other orders," or moving the “previous question." The former means that the house should take no further notice of the matter then introduced, but, casting it aside, proceed to other business appointed for that day; the latter, that the vote be previously taken as to the expediency of their coming to any decision on the question raised. If the previous question be carried, the motion it is meant to frustrate is only got rid of for the time; whereas a direct negative to the motion would be a proscription of it for the remainder of the session, as well as a denial of its principle.

Moving that a bill "be read this day six months," that is, after a prorogation has intervened, by which every bill is dropped, is a mode of throwing out a distasteful measure without coming to an express declaration upon its principle.

Notice is sometimes given of a "call of the house;" this is meant to insure a full attendance of members, as those absent without leave of the house, or just cause, are liable to be fined.

The rules of order in the House of Lords differ in some particulars from those observed in the commons. In debate, those who speak address the whole house, and not the chairman. The peer who sits on the woolsack or in the chair of committees has no duties to perform during the deliberations of the house, excepting to " the question." He is not the judge or guardian of order. If several peers rise together, the house decides who shall first be heard. The speaker or deputy speaker of the lords is not disqualified ex officio from taking a part in the debate.

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VII. REFORM OF REPRESENTATION.

The preceding sections describe the conditions and progress of parliamentary representation up to the important act of 1867. In that year was passed the 30 & 31 V. c. 102, to amend the law relative to parliamentary government. It does not, however, extend to Scotland or Ireland, nor in any way affect the election of members for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge; but, by s. 24, empowers the University of London, in future parliaments, to return one member.

As respects the occupation franchise in boroughs, every man, in and after the year 1868, is entitled to be registered as a voter, and when registered be qualified to vote for a member, if he is of full age on the last day of July in any year, and has during the whole of the preceding twelve calendar months been an inhabitant occupier, as owner or tenant, of any dwelling-house within the borough, and rated to all rates (if any) made for the relief of the poor in respect of such premises. He must, on or before the twentieth day of July in the same year, have paid an equal amount in the pound to that payable by other ordinary occupiers in respect of all poor rates that have become payable by him in respect of such premises up to the preceding fifth day of January. But the occupation must be absolute and entire, not a joint occupation of a dwelling-house.

The qualification of a lodger is similar: his occupation must be absolute, and it must be of the clear yearly value of £10 annually, if let unfurnished; he must have resided twelve months, and claimed to be registered as a voter at the next ensuing registration of voters.

The property franchise for voters in counties is, full age, registration, and the possession of real estate of not less than £5, clear of all rents and charges payable out of it. But registration as a voter will not be allowed under this section unless the provisions of the 26th section of W. 4, c. 45, have been complied with, except in case of property coming by descent.