307

TO 1837.]

REDUCTION OF THE DUTY ON SILK.

persons well acquainted with the trade, that the measure connection with the silk trade. From the year 1827 would bring certain ruin upon the manufacturers of to 1843 not more than half the silk shipped from England. But in this case, as well as in so many others, France paid duty. The duty received during that experience proved how utterly groundless were the period, which was at the rate of 19s. 9d. per lb., was apprehensions of the monopolists. They did not see that, if they could not command high prices, they would have a more extended market,

quick

com

returns, and in the end larger profits, or that by competition such improveinents would be effected in the machinery, and in the processes of manufacturing, as would enable them to rival the finest productions of foreign looms. The truth that the silk-weaving business was under theold system very precarious, and the plaint of the silk-weavers, that they were on the vergeof ruin, was as common for half a century as thatof the farmers and the shipowners. According to the report of the inspectors of factories, there were, in 1835, 231 silk factories in England, six in Scotland, and one in Ireland. They employed 2,486 boys between the ages

SCENE ON A COTTON PLANTATION.

GATHERING COTTON.

twelve, and 3,925 girls of that tender age. There were | £3,136,691, so that the revenue during that period was

of eight and

2,663 children between twelve and thirteen years of age. defrauded to that amount. Had the duty during that time The total number of females employed was over 20,000, been 10s., the revenue would have been as good, and the and the number of both sexes was about 31,000. Smug- consumer would have gained 9s. 9d. per lb. in the price of gling has been always carried on very extensively in the manufactures produced and imported. These amounted

to 79,217,862 lb., including all qualities, which gives a sum of £38,618,708 lost to the great bulk of the community in seventeen years, caused by the operation of excessive duties imposed for the supposed benefit of only one branch of manufactures, and which those engaged in it have continually declared to be in a condition of adversity.*

Woollen manufacture is the ancient staple of England, said by tradition to have been introduced by the Romans. It is certain from history that broadcloths were made in England as early as the close of the twelfth century. But most of the cloth worn in this country then, and long after, was imported from Flanders, and our home manufacture was much indebted to the skill of Flemish settlers. From 1660 down to 1825 the government, acting upon false principles of political economy, strictly prohibited the exportation of British wool, on the mistaken notion that we should thereby secure to ourselves a superiority in the manufacture of certain fabrics. As soon as the French got the combing wool of England, they certainly did exceed us in the quality of the goods produced. But this fact whetted the ingenuity of British manufacturers, and the consequence was that we produced articles equally good, and greatly extended our market. During the five years after the removal of the restriction, we added more than 200,000 to the number of pieces exported, and the export went on increasing until 1840, when it reached 2,128,212, being double the quantity exported annually during the last five years, when the prohibition existed. But the home demand has been always much greater than the foreign, so that it is not easy to estimate the extent of the manufacture. The total number of woollen and worsted factories at work in 1835 was returned by the inspectors of factories as being 1,313, showing an increase of ten per cent. in four years. The total number of persons employed in them in 1835 was 71,274, on which there was an increase of twenty per cent. up to 1839.

culture, showing the close dependence upon one another of all the industrial interests of the country.

The linen trade flourished early in Ireland, and the woollen trade would have flourished also, had it not been repressed by the British legislature. In answer to an address from parliament, king William III. said, “I shall do all that in me is to discourage the woollen manufacture in Ireland, and encourage the linen manufacture, and to promote the trade of England." He kept his promise, and the dependent Irish parliament was induced to pass an act prohibiting the exportation of all woollen goods from Ireland to foreign countries, the exportation to England being already prevented by prohibitory duties. The encouragement of the linen trade, by way of compensation, consisted in a bounty on the exportation of Irish linen, which existed till 1830. In the year 1800 the total exports of linen from Ireland amounted to 34,500,000 yards. From that time there was a steady increase, and in 1825 the quantity exported was 55,000,000 yards. After this year the commercial intercourse between the two parts of the United Kingdom was so identified-the Irish stream flowing into the English river-that no separate account was taken. The exports from the United Kingdom of all kinds of linen goods, and of flax yarn, amounted, in 1884, to the total declared value of £2,579,658. The quantities of Irish linen shipped in subsequent years has been continually increasing. The inspectors appointed by the linen board in Dublin, în a statement which was given in the appendix to the report upon the linen manufacture of Ireland, made by a committee of the house of commons in 1825, have given the latest authentic account within the period under review of the value of the linen goods sold in the different markets of Ireland. It was for three years ending in 1824, and it gave the following results for the different provinces in that year:-Ulster, £2,109,309 ; Leinster, £192,888; Munster, £110,421; Connaught, £168,090. Total, £2,580,708.

There was a general depression in the price of British The manufacture of linen made great progress in Scotwool, in consequence of which a committee of the house of land, especially in the town and neighbourhood of Dundee. commons was appointed to inquire into the causes. From In 1814 the quantity of flax imported into Dundee for use the evidence which they received, it appeared that the in the factories did not exceed 3,000 tons; but in 1831 actual number of sheep in England and Wales had it was 15,000 tons, and in 1833 it was nearly 18,000 tons, increased one-fifth since the year 1800, when it was including 3,380 tons of hemp. The quantity of linen sail 19,000,000, yielding about 95,000,000 lb. of wool, or cloth and bagging into which this material was made, and about five pounds for each fleece, including imported wool. which was shipped from Dundee in the same year, amounted It was estimated that the quantity used for manufacturing to 60,000,000 yards. The manufacture of linen has inpurposes increased during the first half of the present cen- creased rapidly in England, and the improvement of the tury by 115 per cent. Yorkshire is the chief seat of the quality has been something wonderful, owing to the perwoollen manufacture, and the best proof of its progress, fection of the machinery. The length of a pound of yarn perhaps, is presented in the state of the population, which, of average fineness in 1814 was only 3,330 yards; but in in the whole of the West Riding increased during the first 1833 a pound of the average quality contained 11,170 yards; forty years of the present century at the rate of 104 per the yarn of that quality having during twenty years fallen cent. At the census of 1801 it was,563,953, while the to one-ninth of the price; the raw material having been census of 1841 showed it to be 1,151,101. The improve- reduced in price at the same time about one-half. The ment and progress of the woollen trade has resulted very English manufacturers embarked to so large an extent in much from the improvement in the breed of sheep, yielding the linen trade, that they became large exporters of linen a larger quantity and finer quality of wool; and in this way yarn to Ireland and also to France. The export of linen the manufacturing trade reacted powerfully upon agri-yarn is a new branch of trade, resulting from the perfection in the spinning machinery. In past times, and even so late as 1827, our weavers used nearly 4,000,000 lb. of foreign

Porter's "Progress of the Nation," p. 228.

TO 1837.]

VALUE OF THE MINERAL PRODUCTS OF BRITAIN.

yarn, but the importation gradually diminished.

309

for the advancement of civilisation, iron is the most important, and contributes in the largest measure to human progress. But in order to render it available, coals are

Our exports of linen fabrics to the United States, where our principal market is found, amounted in 1848 to nearly 31,000,000 yards, the declared value of which was necessary. These two elements of national prosperity a £859,479.

bountiful Providence has given to Great Britain in the richest abundance. With her inexhaustible iron and coal mines, and with skill and capital to turn them to account, there can be hardly any limit to the material advancement of the country.

It is not known at what period iron was first made in this country. It is certain, however, that iron works were established by the Romans in the forest of Dean, and other parts of the island. This branch of industry continued to be carried on in various localities; but with very little energy, until pit coal was substituted for timber, as fuel in the smelting furnaces. Lord Dudley discovered the practicability of this change in 1619; but ignorant prejudice prevented its general adoption, until about 1740, in which year, the quantity of iron produced in England and Wales was estimated at 17,350 tons, and the number of furnaces was 59. Soon after, coke was used in smelting; and in 1796 there were in England and Wales 104 furnaces, pro

The following statistics will give a comprehensive view of the state of the linen manufacture in the United Kingdom. The total number of factories at work in England in 1850 was 152; in Scotland, 170; in Ireland, 25: total in the United Kingdom, 347. The number in the West Riding of Yorkshire was 64, more than double the whole number then in Ireland. It is a singular fact that there was then no linen factory in Wales. The total number of persons employed in the trade was 33,283, of whom 22,888 were females, about half of the number being under 18 years of age, upwards of 2,000 between twelve and thirteen years, and more than 600 between eight and twelve. The proportions in which persons of different ages were employed in each of these four branches of industry in 1835 was nearly the same in cotton and flax. In wool the employment of young children under twelve years of age was double the number in the others, and in the silk trade it was more than six times the number. The largest producing about 109,000 tons; and in Scotland 17 furnaces, portion of adults was employed in the cotton trade, producing 16,000 tons. In 1806 the produce had increased amounting to 57 per cent. of the whole. In 1839 there to 250,000 tons annually. The total produce of all the were no children under nine years of age employed in British iron works was found, after a careful estimate, to factories, except a few in the silk trade. The proportion be, in 1823, 442,066 tons; in 1825, 581,367 tons; in 1828, of adults was nearly the same. 653,417, and in 1830, 702,584 tons. In 1844 the quantity reached 1,500,000 tons. According to the evidence given before a parliamentary committee in that year, the annual produce, excluding Ireland, was 1,396,400 tons. The quantity of tin produced in England in 1820 was 3,578 tons; in 1834 it was 4,000 tons. In addition to the quantities used at home, there has been a considerable exportation of tin plates, the value of which in 1820 was about Roads-Horse Power-Macadamized Roads-Progress in Road Making £161,000, and in 1840 it was more than £360,000. The -Bridges-Civilising Effect of Roads in Ireland-The Old Roads in England-The Horsham Road-The Great Western Road-Holloway- produce of the copper mines of Cornwall has been much The North Road-The Sussex Ways-Kennington-Road between greater than that of the tin mines; for while in 1820 Preston and Wigan-The Oxford Stage Coach-A "Fast Coach"it was only 7,364 tons, it had increased in 1840 to Effects of different Modes of Travelling upon National Manners and Habits-Primitive Stage Coaches-Carriage of Goods-Inequality of 11,000 tons. The increase during 60 years had been threePrices-Internal Commerce-Fairs-Extension of Turnpike Roads-fold, and the value annually raised exceeded £1,000,000 Rapid Increase of Travelling in the Reign of George IV.-Mail Coaches -The Railway System: its Origin and Progress-Immense Capital embarked in Railways-Railway Accidents-Railway LegislationEnormous Parliamentary Expenses and Compensation for Land-The Railway Mania-Employment on Railways-Present Pre-eminence of Great Britain in the Mechanical and Industrial Arts-Inland Navigation-Steam Navigation: its Origin and Progress: its Social Advantages -Immense Increase of Travelling by Steamers-Steam Communication with the Continent and with India-The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company-The Development of the Coasting Trade-Improved Communication between England and Ireland-The Old System of Travelling to Iroland-The Route by Holyhead-The Welsh Roads The New Road constructed by Mr. Telford-The Menai and Conway Suspension Bridges-The Harbours of Holyhead and Kingstown Rapidity and Economy of the Present Modes of Travelling-Immense Trafic by Steamers across the Channel from most of the Ports of Ireland.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

National Progress (continued)-Mines-Iron-Coals-Mineral ProduceMining Population-The Workers in Metals-Hardware-Birmingham - Sheffield-Exportation of Cutlery, &c.-Restrictions on Artisans, and on the Exportation of Machinery-Internal Communication-English Way-Power-Advantage of Water Communication-Iron Consumed on

sterling.

The value of the mineral products of England mainly depends upon our home supply of coals, and but for our command of fuel the most appropriate for working metals, our iron mines must long since have ceased to be worked, and all the branches of industry dependent upon them must have wanted the mainspring of their action, and have come to a standstill. Yet on the other hand it is evident, that but for the inventions by which iron has been converted into the most powerful machines, and from steam a power has been created by which alone coal-mines could have been rendered available for the vast demands of industrial progress, our coal-beds would AMONG the resources of Great Britain to which she is be of little use. By the consumption of one bushel of mainly indebted for her pre-eminence as a manufacturing coals in the furnace of a steam-boiler, a force is produced nation, and without which she would not have been able which in a few minutes will raise 20,000 gallons of water to make anything like the progress she has made, or to bid from a depth of 350 feet, which would take twenty men a defiance to foreign competition as she may always do, are whole day to accomplish by means of a common pump. her mines of coal and iron. Of all the minerals employed | The wonderful effect produced by an invention-by a

the sea-ports at average prices, varying from 14s. to 20s.

happy thought conceived in the mind of a man of genius, and realised by the experiments of a practical philosopher- a ton. may be seen in the safety-lamp of Sir Humphry Davya discovery which has not only saved a great number of human lives, but has caused the re-opening and the working of many collieries, which otherwise would have been utterly useless. In 1830, before a committee of the house of commons, professor Sedgwick stated that a great deal of coal appeared formerly to have been left underground, in consequence of a want of general plans, or maps of underground workings. A number of excavations had taken place, independently of each other; the consequence of which was that there were a great number of piers, or large barriers between the old coal works. It was the custom to leave large pillars of coal, in order to support the roof; so that at the depth of 100 fathoms little more than forty per cent. was abstracted, and the rest was abandoned. In some mines wooden pillars were substituted; and in the course of time a system of artificial propping was brought into operation, by means of which, and with the aid of Sir Humphry Davy's safety lamp, every particle of coal can now be got out of the mine before it is abandoned. In the year 1820 the quantity of coals shipped from the port of Newcastle was more than 2,000,000 tons. In the year 1840 it had increased to nearly 3,000,000. From the port of Sunderland the quantity shipped in 1820 was considerably more than 1,000,000. In 1840 it was 1,300,000 tons. Large quantities have also been shipped from the port of Stockton. The chief coal districts have naturally become the chief manufacturing districts; and as the coal is on the spot, it is impossible to estimate the quantities consumed in working the factories in Lancashire, the West Riding of Yorkshire, Nottingham, Derby, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Leicester, Coventry, and Staffordshire. Other inland manufacturing districts are supplied by the numerous canals and railroads which intersect the country. The quantity of coals carried by canals and railways is roughly estimated at upwards of 10,000,000 tons annually. The importance of having such a vast supply of coals for the working of our iron-mines will be seen from the fact that four tons of coals are required for smelting one ton of iron; and the quantity of iron produced in the country amounts to about 2,000,000 tons annually; so that 8,000,000 tons of coals are consumed in the single process of producing pig or cast iron, not to speak of the quantities required for converting this into bar iron, and into the various Among the mining population the number of males articles of hardware. The town of Sheffield alone, it was employed under twenty years of age is 86,647; the numestimated in 1835, required for manufacturing purposes ber of females under twenty years of age is 5,000; and the about 515,000 tons of coals. If our coal-mines be essential total number of females is about 9,000. Mr. Whitney, an for manufacturing purposes, how inexpressibly important American gentleman, has attempted to give a complete view must they be for domestic purposes. Few persons of right of the value of the metallic produce of the world in the year feeling are insensible to the charm of the English fireside, 1854, which is to be regarded only as an approximation to with all its happy and sacred associations of family and the truth. It will be sufficient for our purpose to take it home. What should we have done in this cold, moist in round numbers of millions sterling:-Great Britain, climate without coals for cooking purposes, and for keep- £20,000,000; the United States, £16,000,000; Austraing up the warmth of our dwellings? In Ireland the turf-lia, £8,000,000; Mexico, £6,000,000; Russian empire, bogs supply peat to a large extent for this purpose; but £5,000,000; Prussian, £4,000,000; France, £3,000,000; even in that country, and especially in the towns, English South America, £7,000,000; Belgium, £2,000,000; coals are extensively used for fuel, and are purchased at Spain, £1,500,000; Sweden and Norway, £1,000,000.

If charcoal were used for mining purposes, all the forests in the world would be insufficient to supply the demand. Even as it is, the quantity of timber consumed in connection with mining operations is astounding. The total quantity of timber in use for mining purposes in Cornwall would require no less than 140 square miles of forest, of Norwegian pines, averaging a growth of 120 years. In 1836 the consumption of timber for mines was estimated at 36,200 loads, or 144,800 trees. The cost of timber imported in the same year was £176,000, the drawback and the duties of which amounted to nearly £82,000. The cost of timber for the Devon and Cornish mines in that year amounted to about £94,000. The advantages of Great Britain, in point of situation, enable her to compete successfully with all foreign countries, and, indeed, to put all rivals out of the market. Her insular position enables the coal to be conveyed at a minimum cost wherever it is wanted, and affords the greatest facility for the shipping of iron to all parts of the world; and though she is obliged to import the finer kinds of iron, for the manufacture of steel, to the extent of 32,000 tons a year, yet she exports annually 200,000 tons. Dr. Buckland, in his address to the Geological Society, in 1840, stated that "the average value of the annual produce of the mines of the British islands amounts to the enormous sum of £20,000,000, of which about £8,000,000 arises from iron, and £9,000,000 from coals." Sir Henry De la Beche, in 1851, gave the estimate of the raw mineral produce of Great Britain and Ireland as £24,000,000, or about four-ninths of that of all Europe, including these islands, the coal being estimated at the pit's mouth, the iron in the pig, and so on. It appears that the produce is increasing: Mr. Hunt gave an estimate, taken from the government geological survey for 1853 and 1854. The latter year yielded the largest amounts. The following are the items:-Of 1854: iron (pig), £9,500,000; copper, £1,229,807; lead, £1,472,115; tin, £690,000; silver, £192,500; zinc, £16,500; coal at pit's mouth, £14,975,000; other minerals, as Nichol's sulphur and arsenic, £500,000. Total, £28,575,922; and the quantity, 64,661,401 tons.

The number of persons employed in British mining, men and women, of all ages, is :-Coal, 219,995; iron, 26,106; copper, 21,169; tin, 14,764; lead, 21,769; zinc, &c., 174. Total, 303,977.