been, with a most patient and frivolous industry, to branch them out under a vast number of divisions, according to all the several modes in which a word may be carried from its literal meaning, into one that is figurative, without doing any more; as if the mere knowledge of the names and classes of all the Tropes that can be formed, could be of any advantage towards the proper or graceful use of Language. All that I purpose is, to give, in a few words, before finishing this lecture, a general view of the several sources whence the tropical meaning of words is derived; after which I shall, in subsequent Lectures, descend to a more particular consideration of some of the most considerable Figures of Speech, and such as are in most frequent use; by treating of which I shall give all the instruction I can concerning the proper employment of Figurative Language, and point out the errors and abuses which are apt to be committed in this part of Style.

All Tropes, as I before observed, are founded on the relation which one object bears to another; in virtue of which, the name of the one can be substituted instead of the name of the other; and by such a substitution, the vivacity of the idea is commonly meant to be increased. These relations, some more, some less intimate, may all give rise to Tropes. One of the first and most obvious relations is, that between a cause and its effect. Hence, in Figurative Language, the cause is sometimes put for the effect. Thus, Mr. Addison, writing of Italy :

Blossoms, and fruits, and flowers together rise,
And the whole year in gay confusion lies:

where the "whole year" is plainly intended to signify the effects or productions of all the seasons of the

year. At other times, again, the effect is put for the cause; as grey hairs" frequently for old age, which causes grey hairs; and "shade," for trees that produce the shade. The relation between the container and the thing contained, is also so intimate and obvious, as naturally to give rise to Tropes:

Ille impiger hausit

Spumantem pateram & pleno se proluit auro.

Where every one sees, that the cup and the gold are put for the liquor that was contained in the golden cup: In the same manner, the name of any country is often used to denote the inhabitants of that country; and Heaven, very commonly employed to signify God, because he is conceived as dwelling in Heaven. To implore the assistance of Heaven is the same as to implore the assistance of God. The relation betwixt any established sign and the thing signified, is a further source of Tropes. Hence,

Cedant arma togæ; concedat laurea linguæ.

The "toga" being the badge of the civil professions, and the "laurel," of military honours, the badge of each is put for the civil and military characters themselves. To assume the sceptre," is a common phrase for entering on royal authority. To Tropes, founded on these several relations, of cause and effect, container and contained, sign and thing signified, is given the name of Metonymy.

When the Trope is founded on the relation between an antecedent and a consequent, or what goes before and immediately follows, it is then called a Metalepsis; as in the Roman phrase of " Fuit," or Vixit," to express that one was dead. "Fuit

6

"Ilium et ingens gloria Dardanidum," signifies, that the glory of Troy is now no more.

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; the singular for the plural, or the plural for the singular number; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant; the figure is then called a Synecdoche. It is very common, for instance, to describe a whole object by some remarkable part of it: as, when we say, "a fleet of so many sail," in the place of "in "ships;" when we use the "head" for the "person,” the "pole" for the "earth," the "waves" for the "sea." In like manner an attribute may be put for a subject; as "Youth and Beauty," for "the young "and beautiful;" and sometimes a subject for its attribute. But it is needless to insist longer on this enumeration, which serves little purpose. I have said enough to give an opening into that great variety of relations between objects, by means of which the mind is assisted to pass easily from one to another; and by the name of the one understands the other to be meant. It is always some accessory idea, which recalls the principal to the imagination; and commonly recalls it with more force, than if the principal idea had been expressed.

The relation which is far the most fruitful of Tropes, I have not yet mentioned; that is, the relation of Similitude and Resemblance. On this is founded

what is called the Metaphor: when, in place of using the proper name of any object, we employ in its place the name of some other which is like it; which is a sort of picture of it, and which thereby awakens the conception of it, with more force or

grace. This Figure is more frequent than all the rest put together; and the language, both of prose and verse, owes to it much of its elegance and grace. This, therefore, deserves very full and particular consideration; and shall be the subject of the next Lecture.

LECTURE XV.

METAPHOR.

AFTER the preliminary observations I have made relating to Figurative Language in general, I come now to treat separately of such Figures of Speech as occur most frequently, and require particular attention : and I begin with Metaphor. This is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance which one object bears to another. Hence, it is much allied to Simile, or Comparison; and is indeed no other than a comparison, expressed in an abridged form. When I say of some great minister, "that he upholds the "state, like a Pillar which supports the weight of a "whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison; but when I say of such a minister, "that he is the Pillar "of the state," it is now become a Metaphor. The comparison betwixt the Minister and a Pillar, is made in the mind; but is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison. The comparison is

only insinuated, not expressed: the one object is supposed to be so like the other, that, without formally drawing the comparison, the name of the one may be put in the place of the name of the other. "The minister is the Pillar of the state." This, therefore, is a more lively and animated manner of expressing the resemblances which imagination traces among objects. There is nothing which delights the fancy more than this act of comparing things together, discovering resemblances between them, and describing them by their likeness. The mind thus employed, is exercised without being fatigued; and is gratified with the consciousness of its own ingenuity. We need not be surprised, therefore, at finding all Language tinctured strongly with Metaphor. It insinuates itself even into familiar conversation; and, unsought, rises up of its own accord in the mind. The very words which I have casually employed in describing this, are a proof of what I say; tinctured, insinuates, rises up, are all of them metaphorical expressions, borrowed from some resemblance which fancy forms between sensible objects and the internal operations of the mind; and yet the terms are no less clear, and perhaps more expressive, than if words had been used, which were to be taken in the strict and literal sense.

Though all Metaphor imports comparison, and, therefore, is, in that respect, a Figure of thought; yet, as the words in a Metaphor are not taken literally, but changed from their proper to a Figurative sense, the Metaphor is commonly ranked among Tropes or Figures of words. But, provided the nature of it be well understood, it signifies very little whether we call it a Figure or a Trope. I have confined it to the