a diffuse and spreading method, beyond the bounds of reasonable illustration, is always enfeebling. It takes off greatly from that strength and sharpness which should be the distinguishing character of the argumentative part of a discourse. When a speaker dwells long on a favourite argument, and seeks to turn it into every possible light, it almost always happens, that, fatigued with the effort, he loses the spirit with which he set out, and concludes with feebleness what he began with force. There is a proper temperance in reasoning, as there is in other parts of a discourse.

510. After due attention given to the proper arrangement of arguments, what is next requisite for their success, is, to express them in such a style, and to deliver them in such a manner, as shall give them full force.

511. We now proceed to another essential part of discourse, which was mentioned as the fifth in order, that is, the PATHETIC; in which, if any where, eloquence reigns, and exerts its power.

512. On the head of the pathetic, the following directions may be found useful.

513. The first is to consider carefully, whether the subject admit the pathetic, and render it proper; and if it does, what part of the discourse is the most proper for attempting it.

Obs. 1. To determine these points belongs to good sense; for it is evident, that there are many subjects which admit not the pathetic at all, and that even in those that are susceptible of it, an attempt to excite the passions in the wrong place, may expose an orator to ridicule. All that can be said in general is, that if we expect any emotion which we raise to have a lasting effect, we must be careful to bring over to our side, in the first place, the understanding and judgment.

2. The hearers must be convinced that there are good and sufficient grounds for their entering with warmth into the cause. They must be able to justify to themselves the passion which they feel; and remain satisfied that they are not carried away by mere delusion.

3. Unless their minds be brought into this state, although they may have been heated by the orator's discourse, yet, as soon as he ceases to speak, they will resume their ordinary tone of thought; and the emotion which he has raised will produce no effect.

4. Hence most writers assign the pathetic to the peroration or conclusion, as its natural place; and, no doubt, all other things being equal, this is the impression that one would choose to make last, leav ing the minds of the hearers warmed with the subject, after argument and reasoning had produced their full effect: but wherever it is introduced, observe,

514. In the second place, never to set apart a head of a discourse in form, for raising any passion; never give warning that you are about to be pathetic; and call upon your hearers, as is sometimes done, to follow you in the attempt. This almost never fails to prove a refrigerant to passion. It

puts the hearers immediately on their guard, and disposes them for criticising, much more than for being moved.

Obs. The indirect method of making an impression is likely to be more successful, when you seize the critical moment that is favourable to emotion, in whatever part of the discourse it occurs, and then, after due preparation, throw in such circumstances, and present such glowing images, as may kindle their passions before they are aware. This can often be done more happily, in a few sentences inspired by natural warmth, than in a long and studied address.

515. In the third place, it is necessary to observe, that there is a great difference between shewing the hearers that they ought to be moved, and actually moving them.

Illus. To every emotion or passion, nature has adapted a set of corresponding objects; and, without setting these before the mind, it is not in the power of any orator to raise that emotion. I am warmed with gratitude, I am touched with compassion, not when a speaker shews me that these are noble dispositions, and that it is my duty to feel them; or when he exclaims against me for my indifference and coldness. All this time, he is speaking only to my reason or conscience. He must describe the kindness and tenderness of my friend; he must set before me the distress suffered by the person for whom he would interest me: then, and not till then, my heart begins to be touched, my gratitude or my compassion begins to flow.

Scholium. The foundation, therefore, of all successive execution in the way of pathetic oratory is, to paint the object of that passion which we wish to raise, in the most natural and striking manner; to describe this object with such circumstances as are likely to awaken in the minds of others the passion which we wish to raise. Every passion is most strongly excited by sensation; as anger by the feeling of an injury, or the presence of the injurer. Next to the influence of sense, is that of memory; and next to memory, is the influence of the imagination. Of this power, therefore, the orator must avail himself, so as to strike the imagination of the hearers with circumstances which, in lustre and steadiness, resemble those of sensation and remembrance. In order to accomplish this,

516. In the fourth place, the only effectual method is, to be moved yourselves. There are a thousand interesting circumstances suggested by real passion, which no art can imitate, and no refinement can supply. There is obviously a contagion among the passions.

Obs. The internal emotion of the speaker adds a pathos to his words, his looks, his gestures, and his whole manner, which exerts a power almost irresistible over those who hear him. But on this point, though the most material of all, we shall not insist, as all attempts towards becoming pathetic, when we are not moved ourselves, expose us to certain ridicule.

517. In the fifth place, it is necessary to attend to the proper language of the passions. We should observe in what manner any one expresses himself who is under the

power of a real and a strong passion; and we shall always find his language unaffected and simple.

Illus. 1. It may be animated, indeed, with bold and strong figures, but it will have no ornament or finery. He is not at leisure to follow out the play of imagination. His mind being wholly seized by one object, which has heated it, he has no other aim, but to represent that in all its circumstances, as strongly as he feels it.

2. This must be the style of the orator when he would be pathetic; and this will be his style, if he speaks from real feeling; bold, ardent, simple. No sort of description will then succeed, but what is written "fervente calamo." If he stay till he can work up his style, and polish and adorn it, he will infallibly cool his own ardour; and then he will touch the heart no more. His composition will become frigid; it will be the language of one who describes, but who does not feel.

3. We must take notice, that there is a great difference between painting to the imagination, and painting to the heart. The one may be done coolly and at leisure: the other must always be rapid and ardent. In the former, art and labour may be suffered to appear; in the latter, no effect can follow, unless it seem to be the work of nature only. 518. In the sixth place, avoid interweaving any thing of a foreign nature with the pathetic part of a discourse.

Obs. 1. Beware of all digressions, which may interrupt or turn aside the natural course of the passion, when once it begins to rise and swell. 2. Sacrifice all beauties, however bright and showy, which would divert the mind from the principal object, and which would amuse the imagination, rather than touch the heart.

3. Hence comparisons are always dangerous, and generally quite improper, in the midst of passion.

4. Beware even of reasoning unseasonably; or, at least, of carrying on a long and subtile train of reasoning, on occasions when the principal aim is to excite warm emotions.

519. In the last place, never attempt prolonging the pathetic too much. Warm emotions are too violent to be lasting. Study the proper time of making a retreat; of making a transition from the passionate to the calm tone; in such a manner, however, as to descend without falling, by keeping up the same strain of sentiment that was carried on before, though now expressing it with more moderation.

Obs. Above all things, beware of straining passion too far; of attempting to raise it to unnatural heights. Preserve always a due regard to what the hearers will bear; and remember, that he who stops not at the proper point; who attempts to carry them farther, in passion, than they will follow him, destroys his whole design. By endeavouring to warm them too much, he takes the most effectual method of freezing them completely.

520. Concerning the PERORATION OR CONCLUSION, it is needless to say much, because it must vary so considerably, according to the strain of the preceding discourse.

Obs. 1. Sometimes the whole pathetic part comes in most properly

at the peroration. Sometimes, when the discourse has been entirely argumentative, it is fit to conclude with summing up the arguments, placing them in one view, and leaving the impression of them full and strong on the mind of the audience. For the great rule of a conclusion, and what nature obviously suggests, is to place that last on which we choose that the strength of our cause should rest.

2. In sermons, inferences from what has been said, make a common conclusion. But inferences, to rise naturally, should so much agree with the strain of sentiment throughout the discourse, as not to break the unity of the sermon. For inferences, how justly soever they may be deduced from the doctrine of the text, yet have a bad effect, if, at the conclusion of a discourse, they introduce some subject altogether new, and turn off our attention from the main object to which the preacher had directed our thoughts. They appear, in this case, like excrescences jutting out from the body, and forming an unnatural addition to it; they tend to enfeeble the impression which the composition, as a whole, is calculated to make.

Scholium. In every discourse, it is a matter of importance to hit the precise time of concluding, so as to bring our subject just to a point; neither ending abruptly and unexpectedly; nor disappointing the expectation of the hearers, when they look for the close; and continuing to hover round and round the conclusion, till they become heartily tired of us. We should endeavour to go off with a good grace; not to end with a languishing and drawling sentence; but to close with dignity and spirit, that we may leave the minds of the hearers warm; and dismiss them with a favourable impression of the subject and of the speaker.

CHAPTER VI.

HISTORICAL WRITING.

521. AS it is the office of an orator to persuade, it is that of an HISTORIAN to record truth for the instruction of mankind. This is the proper object and end of history, from which may be deduced many of the laws relating to its composition; and if this object were always kept in view, it would prevent many of the errors into which persons are apt to fall concerning this species of composition.

Obs. As the primary end of history is to record truth, impartiality, fidelity, and accuracy are the fundamental qualities of an historian. He must neither be a panegyrist nor a satirist. He must not enter into faction, nor give scope to affection; but, contemplating past events and characters with a cool and dispassionate eye, must present to his readers a faithful copy of human nature.

522. Historical composition is understood to comprehend under it, annals, memoirs, lives. But these are its inferior, subordinate species, on which we shall hereafter make

some

reflections, when we shall have first considered what belongs to a regular work of history. Such a work is chiefly of two kinds. Either the entire history of some state or kingdom through its different revolutions, such as Livy's Roman History; Hume's History of England; or the history of some one great event, or some portion or period of time which may be considered as making a whole by itself; such as Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War, Davila's History of the Civil Wars of France, or Clarendon's of those of England; Robertson's History of Charles V.

Obs. 1. In the conduct and management of his subject, the first attention requisite in an historian, is to give it as much unity as possible; that is, his history should not consist of separate unconnected parts merely, but should be bound together by some connecting principle, which shall make on the mind the impression of something that is one, whole and entire.

2. In general histories, which record the affairs of a whole nation or empire throughout several ages, this unity will be more imperfect. Yet even there, some degree of it can be preserved by a skilful writer. For though the whole, taken together, be very complex, yet the great constituent parts of it form so many subordinate wholes, when taken by themselves; each of which can be treated both as complete within itself, and as connected with what goes before and follows.

Illus. 1. In the history of a monarch, for instance, every reign should have its own unity; a beginning, a middle, and an end, to the system of affairs; while, at the same time, we are taught to discern how that system of affairs rose from the preceding, and how it is inserted into what follows. We should be able to trace all the secret links of the chain, which binds together remote and seemingly unconnected events. 2. In some kingdoms of Europe, it was the plan of many successive princes to reduce the power of their nobles; and during several reigns, most of the leading actions had a reference to this end. In other states, the rising power of the Commons influenced, for a tract of time, the course and connection of public affairs.

3. Among the Romans, the leading principle was a gradual extension of conquest, and the attainment of universal empire. The continual increase of their power, advancing towards this end from small beginnings, and by a sort of regular progressive plan, furnished to Livy a happy subject for historical unity, in the midst of a great variety of transactions.

523. In order to fulfil the end of history, the author must study to trace to their springs the actions and events which he records. Two things are especially necessary for his doing this successfully; a thorough acquaintance with human nature, and political knowledge, or acquaintance with government. The former is necessary to account for the conduct of individuals, and to give just views of their character; the latter to account for the revolutions of government, and the operation of political causes on public affairs. Both