supplement to Militär. Wochenblatt (Berlin, 1878); Organ des militärwissenschaftl. Vereins (Vienna, 1881); Reale instituto veneto di scienze, viii. 5, 6 (Venice, 1881); Rivista militare Italiana (March and April 1882); Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, vol. xxii. (Leipzig, 1885). Important controversial works are those of Turpin and Warnery, two distinguished soldiers of the 18th century (Commenlaires sur les mémoires, &c. (Paris), 1769, and Commentaires sur les comm.... du comte Turpin, Breslau, 1777). A critical estimate of Montecucculi's works will be found in Jahns Gesch. der Kriegswissenschaften, ii. 1162–1178 (Leipzig, 1890).

MONTEFALCO, a town of the province of Perugia, Italy, 6 m. S.W. of Foligno, situated on a hill, 1550 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 3397 (town); 5726 (commune). Its churches contain a number of pictures of the Umbrian school; S. Francesco has good frescoes (scenes from the life of S. Francis) of 1452, by Benozzo Gozzoli, in the choir. There is also a communal picture-gallery in the picturesque Palezzo Comunale.

MONTEFIASCONE, a town and episcopal see of the province of Rome, Italy, built on a hill (2077 ft.) on the S.E. side of the Lake of Bolsena, 70 m. by rail N.W. of Rome. Pop. (1901), 3041 (town); 9731 (commune). The cathedral (1519) is one of the earliest structures by Sammicheli, S. Maria della Grazie is also by him. The town has in San Flaviano (built in 1032, repaired and enlarged in the Gothic style late in the 14th century), a curious double church of importance in the history of architecture (cf. G. T. Rivoira, Origini dell' architettura lombarda, i. 326 sqq.); in its interior some 14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1896. In the crypt is the grave of a traveller, who succumbed to excessive drinking of the local wine known as Est, est, est. The story is that his valet who preceded him wrote est on the doors of all the inns where good wine was to be had, and that here the inscription was thrice repeated. It is possible that Montefiascone occupies the site of the Fanum Voltumnae, at which the representatives of the twelve chief cities of Etruria met in the days of their independence; while under the Empire the festival was held near Volsinii.

MONTEFIORE, SIR MOSES HAIM (1784-1885), Jewish philanthropist, eldest son of Joseph Elias Montefiore, a London merchant, and of Rachel, daughter of Abraham Lumbroso de Mattos Mocatta, was born at Leghorn, on the 24th of October 1784. His paternal ancestors were Jewish merchants who settled at Ancona and Leghorn in the 17th century, whilst his grandfather, Moses Haim Montefiore, emigrated from the latter town to London in 1758. Montefiore entered the Stock Exchange, his uncle purchasing for him at a cost of £1200 the right to practise as one of the twelve Jewish brokers licensed by the city of London. Although belonging to the Sephardic or Spanish congregation of Jews, he married in 1812 Judith, a daughter of Levi Barent Cohen, of the "German" Jews, another of whose daughters was the wife of Nathan Mayer Rothschild, the head of the great banking firm; this relationship led to a close connexion in business between Montefiore and that house, and his brother Abraham married Henrietta Rothschild, a sister of the financier. In 1824 Montefiore, having amassed a fortune, retired from the Stock Exchange. From his forty-third year Montefiore devoted all his energies to ameliorating the lot of his co-religionists. His first pilgrimage to Palestine was undertaken in 1827, and resulted in a friendship with Mehemet Ali which was to lead to much practical good. Immediately on his return, Montefiore began to take an active part in the struggle which British Jews were then carrying on to obtain full political and civic rights. In 1837 he became the city of London's second Jewish sheriff, and was knighted. In 1838, accompanied by Lady Montefiore, he started on a second voyage to Palestine, in order to submit to Mehemet Ali a scheme for Jewish colonization in Syria. Though political disturbances rendered his efforts again unsuccessful, the year 1840 brought Montefiore once more before Mehemet, this time to plead the cause of some Jews imprisoned at Damascus on a charge of ritual murder. He obtained their release, and on his way back wrung from the Porte a decree giving Jews throughout Turkey the utmost privileges accorded to aliens. In 1846 the threatened re-issue in Russia of an Imperial ukase (first promulgated in 1844) ordering the withdrawal of all Jews from within 50 versts of the

German and Austrian frontiers, caused Montefiore to proceed to St Petersburg, where in an interview with the tsar he succeeded in getting the ukase rescinded. On his return, Queen Victoria, on the recommendation of Sir Robert Peel, made him a baronet. In 1859 a case of injustice which attracted the attention of all Europe brought Sir Moses to the gates of the Vatican. A Jewish child named Mortara had been secretly baptized by its nurse and stolen from its mother, who died of grief. Cardinal Antonelli, in the name of the pope, refused to give up the boy, who became a priest. In 1863 we find Montefiore on a mission in Constantinople to obtain from the Sultan, Abdul Aziz, the confirmation of his predecessor's decrees in favour of the Jews; in 1864 in Morocco to combat an outbreak of anti-Semitism; in 1866 in Syria, relieving the distress resulting from a plague of locusts and an epidemic of cholera; and in 1867 in Rumania, once more pleading the cause of the oppressed Jews with Prince Charles. In 1872 Montefiore was deputed by the British Jews to present to Alexander II. their congratulations on the bicentenary of the birth of Peter the Great, and was received by the tsar with great honour at the Winter Palace. His seventh and last pilgrimage to the Holy Land was made in 1875, of which he wrote an account in his Narrative of a Forty Days' Sojourn in the Holy Land, published in that year. The last decade of his life was passed in comparative quiet upon his estate near Ramsgate, in Kent; and there, after having received general congratulations on the completion of his hundredth year, he passed peacefully away on the 28th of July 1885. Sir Moses Montefiore was a strictly orthodox Jew, scrupulously observant of both the spirit and the letter of the Scriptures; in his grounds he had a synagogue built where services are still held twice a day, a college where ten rabbis live and expound the Jewish law, and a mausoleum that contains the remains of himself and of Lady Montefiore, who died in 1862.

MONTEFRIO, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada, on the river Bilano. Pop. (1900), 10,725. Montefrio is largely Moorish in character, and dominated by a Moorish castle. Being built midway between the Sierra de Priego and Sierra, Parapanda, and commanding the open valley between these ranges, it became one of the chief frontier fortresses of the Moors in the 15th century. Its industries include manufactures of cotton stuffs, alcohol and soap.

MONTEGUT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH ÉMILE (1825-1895), French critic, was born at Limoges on the 14th of June 1825. He began to write for the Revue des deux mondes in 1847, contributing between 1851 and 1857 a series of articles on the English and American novel, and in 1857 he became chief literary critic of the review. Émile Montégut translated Essais de philosophie américaine (1850) from Emerson; Révolution de 1688 (2 vols. 1853) from Macaulay's History; and also produced the Œuvres complètes (10 vols. 1868-1873) of Shakespeare. Among his numerous critical works are Écrivains modernes d'Angleterre (3rd series, 1885-1892) and Heures de lecture d'un critique (1891), studies of John Aubrey, Pope, Wilkie Collins and Sir John Mandeville. Montégut died in Paris on the 11th of December 1895.

MONTEIL, AMANS ALEXIS (1769-1850), French historian, was born at Rodez in 1769, and died at Cely (Seine-et-Marne) in 1850. His tastes were historical, and he taught history at Rodez, at Fontainebleau and at St Cyr. He held that a disproportionate importance had been given to kings, their ministers and generals, and that it was necessary rather to study the people. In his Histoire des français des divers états, ou histoire de France aux cinq derniers siècles (10 vols., 1828-1844) he undertook to describe the different classes and occupations of the community. For this he made a collection of manuscripts, which he sold in 1835 (many of them passed into the library of Sir Thomas Philipps), drawing up a catalogue under the singular title of Traité de matériaux manuscrits de divers genres d'histoire. He boasted of having been the first to write really "national" history, and he wished further to show this in a memoir entitled L'Influence de l'histoire des divers états, ou comment fût allée la France si elle eût eu cette histoire (1840; reprinted in 1841 under

the title: Les Français pour la première fois dans l'histoire de France, ou poétique de l'histoire des divers états). Monteil did not invent the history of civilization, but he was one of the first in France, and perhaps in Europe, to point out its extreme importance. He revised the third edition of his history himself (5 vols., 1848); a fourth appeared after his death with a preface by Jules Janin (5 vols., 1853).

MONTEITH, the name given to a large bowl, often made of silver, with a movable rim and scalloped edges, from which wine glasses, punch ladle, &c., could be hung, so that they might be cooled in the water with which it was filled. According to Anthony Wood (Life and Times, iii. 84, quoted in the New English Dictionary) the name was given to the bowl from a "fantastical Scot . . . Monsieur Monteigh who . . . wore the bottome of his cloake or coate so notched," i.e. scalloped.

MONTELEONE CALABRO, a city of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, beautifully situated on an eminence gently sloping towards the Gulf of Sta Eufemia, 1575 ft. above sea-level, 70 m. N.N.E. of Reggio di Calabria by rail. Pop. (1901), 10,066 (town); 13,481 (commune). It was almost totally destroyed by earthquake in 1783, but under the French occupation it was rebuilt and made the capital of a province. It suffered, however, considerably in the earthquake of 1905. The castle was built by Frederick II. The principal church contains some sculptures by the Gagini of Palermo.

Monteleone is identical with the ancient Hipponium, said to be a Locrian colony and first mentioned in 388 B.C., when its inhabitants were removed to Syracuse by Dionysius. Restored by the Carthaginians (379), occupied by the Bruttii (356), held for a time by Agathocles of Syracuse (294), and afterwards again occupied by the Bruttii, Hipponium ultimately became as Vibo Valentia a flourishing Roman colony, founded in 239 or 192 B.C. It was important as the point where a branch from Scolacium (Squillace) on the east coast road joined the Via Popillia. The harbour established by Agathocles proved of great service as a naval station to Caesar and Octavian in their wars with Pompeius Magnus and Sextus Pompeius, and remains of its massive masonry still exist at the village of Bivona on the coast, while the fort occupies the site of a temple. Its tunny-fish were famous. In the town itself there are remains of a theatre, of Roman baths (?), a mosaic pavement in the church of St Leoluca (patron saint of Monteleone), and some Latin inscriptions. The town walls too of the Greek city can be traced for their whole extent, about 4 m. They are well constructed of regular parallelograms of a sandy tufa, laid in headers and stretchers. The Roman town occupied only a part of the Greek site, the portion occupied by the modern town, the streets of which still preserve the Roman arrangement. It was supplied with water by an aqueduct, the reservoir of which is situated at the village of Papaglionti. The Capialbi and Cordopatri families have private collections of antiquities.

See V. Capialbi in Mem. Inst. (Rome, 1832), pp. 159 sqq.; F. Lenormant, La Grande-Gréce (Paris, 1882), iii. 155 sqq. (T. As.) MONTÉLIMAR, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Drôme, near the left bank of the Rhone, 93 m. S. of Lyons on the railway to Marseilles. Pop. (1906), town, 9162; commune, 13,554. The ancient castle is now used as a prison. Remains of the ramparts and four old gates are also preserved. The chief public institutions are the sub-prefecture, the tribunal of first instance and the communal college. The industries include flour-milling, silk-throwing and spinning, and the manufacture of hats, lime, farming implements, preserved foods and nougat.

Montélimar was called by the Romans Acunum. At a later period it belonged to the family of Adhémar and received the name Monteil d'Adhémar, whence the present name. Towards the middle of the 14th century it was sold by them partly to the dauphins of Viennois and partly to the pope, and in the next century it came into the possession of the Crown. During the religious wars it valiantly resisted Gaspard de Coligny in 1570, but was taken by the Huguenots in 1587.

MONTEMAYOR (or MONTEMÔR), JORGE (1520?-1561), Spanish novelist and poet, of Portuguese descent, was born about 1520 at Montemôr o Velho (near Coimbra), whence he derived his name, the Spanish form of which is Montemayor. He seems to have studied music in his youth, and to have gone to Spain in 1543 as chorister in the suite of the Portuguese Infanta Maria, first wife of Philip II. In 1552 he went back to Portugal in the suite of the Infanta Juana, wife of D. João, and on the death of this prince in 1554 returned to Spain. He is said to have served in the army, to have accompanied Philip II. to England in 1555, and to have travelled in Italy and the Low Countries; but it is certain that his poetical works were published at Antwerp in 1554, and again in 1558. His reputation is based on a prose work, the Diana, a pastoral romance published about 1559. Shortly afterwards Montemayor was killed in Piedmont, apparently in a love affair; a late edition of the Diana gives the exact date of his death as the 26th of February 1561. The Diana is generally stated to have been printed at Valencia in 1542; but, as the Canto de Orfeo refers to the widowhood of the Infanta Juana in 1554, the book must be of later date. It is important as the first pastoral novel published in Spain; as the startingpoint of a universal literary fashion; and as the indirect source, through the translation included in Googe's Eglogs, epytaphes and sonnets (1563), of an episode in the Two Gentlemen of Verona. Though Portuguese was Montemayor's native language, he only used it for two songs and a short prose passage in the sixth book of the Diana. His mastery of Spanish is amazing, and even Cervantes, who judges the verses in the Diana with unaccustomed severity, recognizes the remarkable merit of Montemayor's prose style. That he pleased his own generation is proved by the seventeen editions and two continuations of the Diana published in the 16th century, by parodies, imitations and renderings in French and English. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-G. Schönherr, Jorge de Montemayor, sein Leben und sein Schäfroman (Halle, 1886); D. García Peres, Catálogo razonado biográfico y bibliográfico de los autores portugueses que escribieron en castellano (Madrid, 1890); Hugo A. Rennert, The Spanish Pastoral Novel (Baltimore, 1892); J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, "The Bibliography of the Diana" in the Revue hispanique (1895); R. Tobler, Shakespeare's Sommernachtstraum und Montemayor's Diana" in the Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft (1898); M. Menéndez y Pelayo, Orígenes de la novela (Madrid, 1905).

MONTENEGRO, a country of south-eastern Europe, forming an independent kingdom situated upon the western side of the Balkan Peninsula, and possessing a small coast-line on the Adriatic Sea. The name is the Venetian variant of the Italian Monte Nero, and together with the Albanian Mal Esiya, the Turkish Kara-dagh, and the Greek Mavro Vouno, reproduces the native, or Serb, Tzrnágora, "the Black Mountain"; it is derived from the dark appearance of Mount Lovchen, the culminating summit of Montenegro proper, of which the northern and eastern declivities, those which are viewed from the country itself, are in shadow for the greater part of the day. The dusky pine forests, which once clothed the mountain and of which remnants

exist on its northern slope, contributed to its sombre aspect. Up to the end of the 15th century, when its territory became restricted to the mountainous districts immediately north and east of Mount Lovchen, the kingdom was known as the Zenta or Zeta, but the name Tzrnagora was probably used locally in this region from the time of the earliest Slavonic settlements.

Area and

Montenegro extends between 41° 55′ and 43° 21′ N., and between 18° 30′ and 20° E.; its greatest length from north to to west about 80 m. It is bounded by the Adriatic south is about 100 m.; its greatest breadth from east on the S., the seaboard extending for 28 m.; by the Primore, a strip of the Dalmatian littoral, on the S.W. and W.; by the Austrian (formerly Turkish) provinces

Boundaries.

1Cf. the similarly-named Terna Planina in eastern Montenegro, Tcherni Vrkh, the culminating summit of Mount Vitosh in Bulgaria, and Mavro Vouno in the island of Salamis. Various other explana tions of the name Montenegro, mostly of a fanciful character, have been put forward: see Kurt Hassert," Der Name Montenegro Globus, No. 67, pp. 111-113 (Leipzig, 1895).

only a few yards square. The vineyards produce excellent grapes, but wine production, which might become an important industry, is at present limited to home consumption. Tobacco is largely cultivated, especially in the neighbourhood of Podgoritza; the annual produce amounts to 550,000 lb. Stock-raising is more largely carried on than agriculture. In the north droves of swine fatten on the mast of the beech woods; goats and large flocks of sheep, celebrated for their thick fleeces, thrive on the high pastures, and the lower slopes afford excellent grazing for larger stock. The native breed of cattle is small, but among other efforts made to improve it a stock-farm is maintained by Prince Nicholas near Nikshitch. The horses, as elsewhere in the Balkan Peninsula, are diminutive, wiry and intelligent. Bee-keeping is practised in the Kutchi districts, and mulberries are grown for silkworms.

Climate. The climate generally resembles that of northern Albania; it is severe in the higher regions, and comparatively mild in the valleys, while in the maritime districts of Antivari and Dulcigno it may be compared with that of central Italy. The mean annual temperature is about 58° F. Snow lies for most of the year on many heights, and in some of the darker gorges it is never thawed. The high basin of Cettigne (2093 ft.) is deeply covered with snow during the winter months, and the capital is sometimes almost inaccessible; in summer the days are hot, but the nights are cool and frequently chilly. The climate is generally healthy except in a few marshy districts.

Flora and Fauna.-The Alpine vegetation of the summits gives way to pine forests in the sub-Alpine zone (about 6000 ft.); below these the beech, and then the oak, the walnut, the wild pear, and wild plum make their appearance; the fig-tree, the mulberry, and the vine grow in the middle Zeta and Moratcha valleys, the myrtle, orange, laurel and olive in the lower Moratcha region, and more abundantly in the Tzrmnitza and maritime districts. In the forest | districts the beech is the prevailing tree up to a height of about 5000 ft. The chestnut forms little groves in the country between the sea and Lake Scutari but never ascends more than 1000 ft. Pomegranate bushes grow wild, and in many parts of the south cover the foot of the hills with dense thickets, the crimson blossoms of which are one of the special charms of the spring landscapes. The leaves of the sumach (Rhus cotinus), which flourishes in the warmer districts, are exported for use in dye-works; the Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium supplies material for the manufacture of insectpowder; the fruit of the wild plum (Cornus mascula), as well as the grape, is employed for the production of raki or rakiya, a mild spirit, which is a favourite beverage with the people. Bears are still found in the higher forests; wolves, and especially foxes, over a much wider area. A few chamois still roam on the loftiest summits, the roebuck is not infrequent in the backwoods, the wild boar may be met with in the same district, and the hare is abundant wherever the ground is covered with herbage. There are one or two species of snakes in the country, including the poisonous Illyrian viper (Vipera ammodytes). Esculent frogs, tree frogs, the common tor: toise, and various kinds of lizards are all common. Scorpions and numerous reptiles infest the arid rocks of the Katunska. The list of birds includes golden eagles and vultures, twelve species of falcons, several species of owls, nightingales, larks, buntings, hoopoes, partridges, herons, pelicans, ducks (ten species), nightjars, &c. Immense flocks of water-fowl haunt the upper reaches of Lake Scutari. The rivers abound with trout, tench, carp and eels; the trout of the Moratcha are especially fine. More important from an economic point of view is the scoranze (Leuciscus alburnus: Servian uklieva), a kind of sardine, which supplies an article of food and merchandise to a considerable portion of the population. The fish, which enter the Ricka inlet of Lake Scutari during the winter, are taken with nets during a few weeks in the spring, when the fishing scason is inaugurated with a religious service; they are salted and exported in large quantities to Trieste and the Dalmatian coast. The annual take is valued at £4000. The sea-fisheries are of less value. As regards mineral resources, traces of iron, copper and coal are said to exist; there is a natural petroleum spring in the neighbourhood of Virbazar.

Agriculture and Stock-farming.-Except in the lowlands, which serve as the granary of Montenegro, furnishing wheat, maize, barley, rye, potatoes and capsicums, there is little tillage. Methods and implements are alike primitive. In the Katunska the peasants are glad to enclose the smallest spaces of the fertile red soil which is

"

The name Brda (literally mountains") signifies in ordinary speech the mountain-group east of the Zeta which was incorporated in the principality in 1796. It figures in the prince's title, but is not otherwise used in official documents.

Commerce and Industries.-The exports, valued at £80,265 in 1906, include cattle (large and small), smoked and salted meat known as castradina, cheese, undressed hides, scoranze, sumach, pyrethrum, tobacco and wool. The imports, valued in the same year at £239,505, consist mainly of manufactured articles, such as iron utensils and weapons, soap, candles, &c., and colonial products. In 1904, when Montenegro renounced its commercial treaties, the old 8% ad valorem duty levied on imports was in many cases raised to 25%. This caused much discontent among the people, who had been growing steadily poorer since 1900; and many families emigrated. The exportation of cattle is greatly hindered by the high tarif imposed on the Austrian frontier, which is productive of much illicit trading. There are practically no manufactures: the men disdain industrial employment, while the women are occupied by household duties or work in the fields. A brewery and a cloth factory, however, exist at Nikshitch, a soda-water factory at Cettigne, and an olive-oil refinery at Antivari. The coarser cloth worn by the peasants is home-made; the finer kind worn by the wealthier class is imported.

Communications.-The progress of trade and the development of the natural resources of the country must largely depend on improved means of communication. In this direction considerable progress has already been achieved. Montenegro possessed in 1907 228 m. of excellent carriage roads, admirably engineered and maintained. The remarkable zigzag road from Cattaro to Niegush and Cettigne was completed in 1881; it was afterwards prolonged to Rieka, Podgoritza, Danilovgrad (where a fine bridge across the Zeta was erected in 1870), and Nikshitch. Another road connects Podgoritza with its port, Plavnitza, on Lake Scutari; a third runs from Antivari to Rieka, and unites the sea-coasts with the richest districts of the interior. The ports of Antivari and Dulcigno are insufficiently sheltered, but are capable of considerable improve ment; both are places of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and a regular service between Antivari and Bari on the Italian coast is maintained by the "Puglia " Steamship Company. The Boyana is navigable by sea-going vessels as far as Oboti (12) m. from its mouth), where cargoes from Scutari must be transferred to small river craft. Important harbour works were inaugurated in 1905 at Antivari by the Italo-Montenegrin Compagnia d'Antivari, which in the same year began the construction of a railway from that port to Virbazar on Lake Scutari. Four steamers belonging to the same company ply on the lake. Postal and telegraphic communication is fairly complete. There were, in 1906, 16 post offices and 20 telegraph stations, with 412 miles of wire. The number of letters posted in that year was 91,250. The telegraph is much used by the people: the number of telegrams sent in 1906 was 54,750.

Population. In 1882 the population of Montenegro was estimated as low as 160,000 by Schwartz. A more usual estimate is 230,000. According, however, to information officially furnished at Cettigne, the total number of inhabitants in 1900 was 311,564, of whom 293,527 belonged to the Orthodox Church; 12,493 were Moslems and 5544 were Roman Catholics; 71,528, or 23%, were literate and 240,036, or 77%, were illiterate. The total number in 1907 was officially given as 282,000. The population is densest in the fertile eastern districts; Montenegro proper is sparsely inhabited. Emigration is greatly increasing, especially to America, the number of emigrants is given as 6674 in 1905 and 4346 in 1906. The bulk of the inhabitants belongs to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race. There were

about 5000 Albanians resident in the country in 1900, besides a small colony of gipsies, numbering about 800, a few of whom have abandoned their nomadic life and settled on the soil. The Moslems, whose thrift and industry have won encouragement from the Crown, greatly decreased for some years after 1880 owing to emigration. The capital of Montenegro is Cettigne The chief commercial (3200 inhabitants in 1900, 5138 in 1907) centres are Podgoritza (12,347) and Nikshitch (6872), with the ports of Antivari (2717) and Dulcigno (5166). These towns are described under separate Leadings. Danilovgrad (1226) on the